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{{More citations needed|date=May 2011}}
[[Image:Bayeux hawking.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[William I of England|King William I]] and [[Harold II of England|King Harold II]] of [[England]], [[Bayeux Tapestry]].]]
'''Royal hunting''', also '''royal art of hunting''', was a [[hunting]] practice of the [[aristocracy]] throughout the known world in the [[Middle Ages]], from [[Europe]] to [[Far East]]. While humans hunted wild animals time immemorial, and all classes engaged in hunting as an important source of food and at times the principal source of nutrition. The necessity of hunting was transformed into a stylized pastime of the aristocracy. More than a pastime,l interaction, essential training for war, and a privilege and measurement of [[nobility]]. In Europe in the [[High Middle Ages]] the practice was widespread.
==History==
Hieratic formalized recreational hunting has taken place since [[Kings of Assyria|Assyrian kings]] hunted [[lion]]s from [[chariot]]s in a demonstration of their royal nature. In Roman law, property included the right to hunt, a concept which continued under the Frankish [[Merovingian]] and [[Carolingian]] monarchs who considered the entire kingdom to be their property, but who also controlled enormous royal domains as hunting reserves (''forests''). The biography of the Merovingian noble [[Saint Hubert]] (died 727/728) recounts how hunting could become an obsession. Carolingian [[Charlemagne]] loved to hunt and did so up until his death at age seventy-two.
With the breakup of the Carolingian Empire, local lords strove to maintain and monopolize the reserves and the taking of big game in forest reserves, and small game in [[warren (free)|warrens]]. They were most successful in England after the [[Norman Conquest]], and in [[Gascony]] from the 12th century. These were large sanctuaries of woodland—the [[royal forest]]—where populations of [[Game (food)|game animal]]s were kept and watched over by [[gamekeeper]]s. Here the peasantry could not hunt, [[poaching]] being subject to severe punishment: the injustice of such "emparked" preserves was a common cause of complaint in populist [[vernacular literature]]. The lower classes mostly had to content themselves with snaring birds and smaller game outside of forest reserves and warrens.
By the 16th century, areas of land reserved for breeding and hunting of game were of three kinds, according to their degree of enclosure and being subject to Forest Laws: ''Forests'', large unenclosed areas of wilderness, ''[[Chase (land)|Chases]]'', which normally belonged to nobles, rather than the crown, and ''[[Medieval deer park|Parks]]'', which were enclosed, and not subject to Forest Laws.<ref>[[OED]]{{clarify|date=July 2017}}</ref>
==Terminology==
{{see|Livre de chasse|Book of Saint Albans}}
One of the striking things about medieval hunting is its devotion to terminology. All aspects of the hunt – each different animal to be hunted, in each year of its development, each of its body parts, each stage of the chase, each feature of the hounds' behaviour – had its separate term. Knowledge and (partly whimsical) extension of this terminology became a courtly fashion in the 14th century in [[medieval France|France]] and [[England in the Late Middle Ages|England]].
Medieval books of hunting laid huge stress on the importance of correct terminology, a tradition which was further extended to great lengths in the [[Renaissance]] period.<ref name=Livre>{{cite book |last1=du Fouilloux |first1=Jaques |title=La Venerie de Jaques du Fouilloux|url=http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~wulfric/rentexte/fouillou |year=1561}}</ref><ref name=Turbervile>{{cite book |last1=Turbervile |first1=George |author-link1=George Turbervile |title=The Noble Art of Venerie or Huntyng (A translation of du Fouilloux) |url=https://archive.org/stream/turbervilesbook00turbgoog |year=1575}}</ref>
The invention of the "fair terms" of hunting was attributed by [[Malory]] and others to the [[Arthurian]] knight [[Tristan|Sir Tristram]],<ref name=Malory>{{cite book |last1=Malory |first1=Sir Thomas |author-link1=Thomas Malory |editor1-first=Eugène |editor1-last=Vinaver |editor1-link=Eugène Vinaver |title=Works |year=1485}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=June 2022}} who is seen both as the model of the noble huntsman, and the originator of its ritual:
<blockquote>As he [Sir Tristram] grew in power and strength he laboured in hunting and hawking – never a gentleman that we ever heard of did more. And as the book says he devised good fanfares to blow for beasts of venery, and beasts of the chase and all kinds of vermin, and all the terms we still have in hawking and hunting. And therefore the book of venery, of hawking and hunting, is called Sir Tristram's. Therefore all gentlemen who bear old [coats of] arms ought to honour Sir Tristram for the goodly terms that gentlemen have and use, and shall until Doomsday, that through them all men of respect may distinguish a gentleman from a yeoman and a yeoman from a villein. (''Modernised'')
</blockquote>
== How hunts were conducted ==
English and French accounts agree on the general makeup of a hunt—they were well-planned so that everyone knew his role before going out. The hunt ''[[Persistence hunting#Parforce hunting|par force]]'' required each participant to have a specific role. If someone slipped in his role, not only could he easily get lost, but it put the rest of the group in danger by exposure. Many nobles hunted ''par force'', for a multitude of reasons, but above all because it was considered the purest and noblest form of hunting. The ritual of the hunt was meant to heighten danger within a controlled context. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, argued against hunters taking game in more efficient ways such as by bow and arrow or by setting traps, saying, "I speak of this against my will, for I should only teach how to take beasts nobly and gently" ("mes de ce parle je mal voulentiers, quar je ne devroye enseigner a prendre les bestes si n'est par noblesce et gentillesce"). Hunters like Gaston hunted not to kill the largest game, but rather for the process of the hunt, preferring ritual over efficiency.<ref name="Crane2012">{{cite book|author=Susan Crane|title=Animal Encounters: Contacts and Concepts in Medieval Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLHomhe_fMUC&pg=PA107|date=29 November 2012|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0630-2|page=107}}</ref> This mode of hunting was also important in the upbringing of noble youths. Boys at the age of 7 or 8 years began to learn how to handle a horse, travel with a company in forests, and utilize a weapon, practicing these skills in hunting groups. As a result, young men in the nobility and royalty were able to transfer acquired skills such as horsemanship, weapons management, wood-crafting, terrain assessment, and strategy formation from the hunting grounds to the battlefield in wars. Hunting also cultivated their education, and taught them the importance of ritual and noble acts.<ref name="Stean1993">{{Cite book|title=The Archaeology of Medieval English Monarchy|last=Steane|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=9780713472462|location=New York}}</ref>
==Equipment==
[[Image:Medieval women hunting.jpg|thumb|250px|Medieval women hunting, illustration from a period manuscript.]]
The weapons used for hunting would mostly be the same as those used for war: [[bow and arrow|bow]], [[crossbow]], [[lance]] or [[spear]], [[knife]] and [[sword]]. Bows were the most commonly used weapon. Although the crossbow was introduced around the time of the [[First Crusade]] (1100), it was not generally used for hunting until the second half of the 15th century. Cudgels (clubs) were used for clubbing small game in particular by women who joined the hunt. "Boar spears" were also used. With the introduction of handheld [[firearm]]s to hunting in the 16th century, traditional medieval hunting was transformed.
The hunter would also need a [[French horn|horn]] for communication with the other hunters. In addition to this the hunter depended on the assistance of certain domesticated animals. Three animals in particular were essential tools for the medieval hunter: the [[horse]], the [[hound]] and the [[hawk]] or [[falcon]].
===Horse===
{{main|Medieval horses}}
The horse was the most important animal of the great medieval household. The [[stable]]s, also called the "marshalsea," would be separate from the rest of the household, and its head officer—the [[marshal]]—would be one of the household's senior officers. The marshal would have [[Page (occupation)|page]]s and [[Groom (horses)|groom]]s serving under him to care for the horses.
A large household would have a wide array of horses for different purposes. There were cart- and [[packhorse]]s employed in the day-to-day work of the household, [[palfrey]]s used for human transport, and [[destrier]]s, or warhorses, a powerful and expensive animal that in late medieval England could obtain prices of up to £80. Although it had the necessary qualities, the destrier would not be used for hunting, due to its value. Instead, a special breed called a [[courser (horse)|courser]] would be used. The courser, though inferior to the destrier and much smaller than today's horses, still had to be powerful enough to carry the rider at high speeds over large distances, agile, so it could maneuver difficult terrain without difficulty, and fearless enough not to be scared when encountering wild beasts.
===Hound===
[[Image:Medieval hounds2.png|thumb|300px|left|Different breeds of medieval dogs]]
The dog was essential for several purposes. Its good sense of smell made it invaluable in finding the quarry. It would then assist in driving the hunted animal and, when the animal was finally at bay, the dog would either be the instrument of attack, or distract the quarry while the hunter moved in for the kill. Different breeds would be used for different tasks, and for different sorts of game, and while some of these breeds are recognizable to us today, the dogs were nevertheless somewhat different from modern breeds.
Foremost among the hunting breeds was the [[greyhound]]. This breed was valued first and foremost for its speed, but also for its ability to attack and take down the game. Since the greyhound did not have much stamina, it was essential that it be not released before the quarry was in sight, toward the end of the hunt. Furthermore, greyhounds, though aggressive hunters, were valued for their docile temper at home, and often allowed inside as pets.
The [[alaunt]], or alant, was a somewhat more robust animal than the greyhound, and therefore used against larger game, such as bears or boars. The alaunt was considered a reckless animal, and had been known to attack domestic animals, or even its owner. The [[English Mastiff|mastiff]] was an even more rugged breed, and though also used on the larger game, was mostly considered useful as a guard-dog.
What all these dogs lacked was the ability to follow the scent of the quarry, and run it down. For this purpose the [[rache|running-hound]] was used. The running-hound was somewhat similar to today's [[foxhound]]. This dog had, as the name indicates, excellent stamina, as well as a good nose. Another dog valued for its scenting skills was the [[Limer|lymer]], a forerunner of today's [[bloodhound]]. Handled on a long leash, the lymer would be used to find the lay of the game before the hunt even started, and it was therefore important that, in addition to having a good nose, it remained quiet. Silence in the lymer was achieved through a combination of breeding and training. Other dogs used for hunting were the kennet (a small hunting dog, from ONF 'kenet', a diminutive of 'chien'), the [[terrier]], the [[harrier (dog)|harrier]] and the [[spaniel]].
The hounds were kept in a [[kennel]], inside or separate from the main domicile. Here the dogs would have oak beds to sleep on, and often also a second level where the dogs could go when the ground level became too hot or too cold. Outside the kennel there would be grass for the dogs to eat whenever they had digestive problems. To care for the dogs would be a hierarchy of servants such as pages, varlets, aides and veneurs; the page being the lowest, often a young boy. Pages would often sleep in the kennels with the dogs, to keep them from fighting and care for them if they got sick. Though this might seem harsh by modern standards, the warm dog house could often be much more comfortable than the sleeping quarters of other medieval servants.
===Hawks and Falcons===
[[File:Konradin.jpg|thumb|250px|A portrait of [[Conradin]] hawking, from the [[Codex Manesse]] (Folio 7r).]]
Medieval terminology spoke of hawks of the tower and hawks of the fist, which roughly corresponds to falcons and hawks, respectively. The female hawk was preferred, since it was both larger than the male and easier to train. A male [[saker falcon]] is approximately two thirds of the weight of a female;<ref name="Oggins2004">{{cite book|author=Robin S. Oggins|title=The Kings and Their Hawks: Falconry in Medieval England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSOMTo4ZoM8C&pg=PA15|year=2004|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-10058-7|page=15}}</ref> falconers call male peregrines ''tiercels'', derived from the Latin word for "third".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Most Female Raptors Are Bigger and Stronger Than Males, but Why? |journal=Audubon |date=12 March 2018 |url=https://www.audubon.org/news/most-female-raptors-are-bigger-and-stronger-males-why |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312183026/http://www.audubon.org/news/most-female-raptors-are-bigger-and-stronger-males-why|archive-date=12 March 2018|publisher=National Audubon Society |language=en}}</ref> Hawks were captured all over Europe, but birds from [[Norway]] or [[Iceland]] were considered of particularly good quality.
Falconry, a common activity in the Middle Ages, was the training of falcons and hawks for personal usage, which included hunting game. Falcons and hawks have different physical makeups which affects their mode of hunting. Ducks, herons, and cranes were the common game hunted by falcons and hawks. The main differences between the two species of birds lies in their wings and tails. Falcons have long, narrow wings with a long tapered tail. As a result, they fly at incredibly high levels. To kill game, they elevate high up in the sky and then dive at their target. Their dives can go up to 200 mph. They utilized their talons on the downward dive to slash game. Usually their strikes kill the game with the first slash. Hawks, however, have shorter, rounder wings and longer tails. They glide along at lower altitudes. To kill their game, they glide toward their target and then use a burst of speed to close in. They utilize their talons to dig in and clutch onto their game until it is dead. As a result of their makeups, falcons and hawks were utilized by owners for different terrains. Falcons were used in open fields while hawks were used in marshlands and woodland.
Training a hawk was a painstaking process. It was normal at first to "seel" the bird's eyelids—sew them shut—so that it would not be scared or distracted. The trainer would then carry the hawk on his arm for several days, to get it accustomed to human presence. The eyes would gradually be unseeled, and the training would begin. (Seeling is no longer practised in falconry and is illegal in most countries). The bird would be encouraged to fly from its perch to the falconer's hand over a gradually longer distance. Hunting game would be encouraged first by the use of meat, then a [[lure (falconry)|lure]], and eventually live prey. Such prey included [[heron]]s, sometime with their legs broken to facilitate the kill.
Hawks would be housed in [[Mews (falconry)|mews]], a special edifice found in most large medieval households, mostly a certain distance from the main domicile, so that the hawks would not be disturbed. The mews could be rather elaborate structures. There would be windows in the wall, and the ground would be kept clean so that the bird's regurgitations could be found and analyzed.
Among the species used were:
*[[Hawk]]s
**[[Northern goshawk|Goshawk]]
**[[Eurasian sparrowhawk|Sparrowhawk]]
*[[Falcon]]s
**[[Gyr falcon|Gyrfalcon]]
**[[Eurasian hobby|Hobby]]
**[[Lanner falcon|Lanner]]
**[[Merlin (bird)|Merlin]]
**[[Peregrine falcon|Peregrine]]
**[[Saker falcon|Saker]]
Of all the falcons, the gyrfalcon was considered the best one. They were thought of the highest quality when white ones were imported from Greenland. King Frederick II considered them the best "out of respect to their size, strength, audacity, and swiftness".<ref name="Stean1993"/> Of the hawks, the goshawk was the most highly valued. They were more expensive and brought in more money for training. Goshawks from Scandinavia in particular were highly sought after.
==Quarry==
Most of the larger, wild mammals could be hunted. Different animals were valued for different qualities; both in the hunt itself, and in the meat and the fur they produced.
===Hart===
[[Image:Deerhunting.png|left|thumb|[[Deer hunting]]]]
The king of all the wild animals was the [[deer]], and more precisely the [[hart (deer)|hart]], which is an adult male of the [[red deer]]. The hart was classified by the number of tines, or points, on its [[antler]]s. An animal should have at least ten tines to be considered worthy of hunting; this was referred to as a "hart of ten."<ref name=Turbervile/> Deer could be hunted in two different ways: ''par force'' ("by strength" and thereunder ''par force de chiens'' ("by force of dogs" )), and bow and stable.
Hunting ''par force'' was considered the noblest form of hunting. In this process the game was run down and exhausted by the dogs before the kill was made. ''Par force'' hunting consisted of eight parts: the quest, the assembly, the relays, the moving or un-harboring, the chase, the baying, the unmaking and the ''curée''.
*'''Quest''': Before the hunt started, an expert huntsman, accompanied by a [[limer|lymer]], would seek out the quarry. By the help of tracks, broken branches and droppings he would try to locate the lay of the hart as accurately as possible; ideally he would see it.
[[Image:MedHartHunt.jpg|thumb|300px|Picture from ''Livre de la Chasse'' showing relays of running hounds set on the path of the hart]]
*'''Assembly''': Then, early on the day of the hunt, the hunting party would meet, examine the huntsman's information and the deer's droppings, and agree on how best to conduct the hunt. This would be a social gathering also, with breakfast served.
*'''Relays''': When the path of the hart had been predicted, relays of dogs were positioned along it. This way, it was assured that the dogs were not worn out before the hart.
*'''Moving''': Also called the ''fynding''. Here a lymer was used to track down the hart.
*'''Chase''': This was the hunt proper; here it was essential to keep the hounds on the track of the selected quarry.
*'''Baying''': When the hart could run no longer, it would turn and try to defend itself. It was said to be "at bay." The hounds should now be kept from attacking, and the most prominent man in the hunting party would make the kill, with a sword or spear.
*'''Unmaking''': The deer was finally dissected in a careful, ritualistic manner.
*'''Curée''': Lastly, the dogs had to be rewarded with pieces of the carcass, in a manner so that they would associate their effort with the reward.
Hunting "by bow and stable" had less prestige, but could produce greater results. The quarry, often a whole herd, would be driven by hounds to a predetermined place. Here archers would be ready to kill the animals with bow and arrow. The subtlest form of hunting, and also the most productive relative to the forces used, was described by the German knight Guicennas. This was a party of two or three men on foot advancing slowly and quietly with partial concealment from horses (literal 'stalking horses' - because deer are relatively unalarmed by quadrupeds), so as to induce the deer to move without undue alarm into range of concealed archers. This required patience, a low profile attitude, and a deep appreciation of animal psychology.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}
The hart was a highly respected animal, and had great [[symbol]]ic and [[mythology|mythological]] significance. It was often compared to [[Christ]] for its suffering; a well-known story tells of how [[Saint Eustace|St. Eustace]] was converted to Christianity by seeing a crucifix between the antlers of a stag while hunting. A similar story is attributed to [[Hubertus|St. Hubert]]. Other stories told of how the hart could become several hundred years old, and how a bone in the middle of its heart prevented it from dying of fear.
===Boar===
[[Image:Boarhunting2.jpg|thumb|right|Unmaking the boar, from the [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry|Très Riches Heures]]]]{{Main|Boar hunting}}
Unlike the Romans for whom hunting [[boar]] was considered a simple pastime, the hunting of boars in Medieval Europe was mostly done by nobles for the purpose of honing martial skill. It was traditional for the noble to dismount his horse once the boar was cornered and to finish it with a dagger. To increase the challenge, some hunters would commence their sport at the mating season, when the animals were more aggressive. Records show that wild boar were abundant in medieval Europe; this is correlated by documents from noble families and the clergy demanding tribute from commoners in the form of boar carcasses or body parts. In 1015 for example, the [[Doge (title)|Doge]] [[Ottone Orseolo]] demanded for himself and his successors the head and feet of every boar killed in his area of influence.<ref name="Nera">{{cite book | author= Scheggi, Massimo | title= La Bestia Nera: Caccia al Cinghiale fra Mito, Storia e Attualità | year= 1999 | isbn=8825379048 | page= 201 |language=it}}</ref> The boar was a highly dangerous animal to hunt; it would fight ferociously when under attack, and could easily kill a dog, a horse, or a man. It was hunted ''par force'', and when at bay, a hound like a mastiff could perhaps be foolhardy enough to attack it, but ideally it should be killed by a rider with a [[Boar spear|spear]]. The boar was sometimes considered a malicious animal, and even had [[satan]]ic associations. It was also respected for its tenacity and appears frequently as a heraldic charge.
===Wolf===
{{Main|Wolf hunting}}
[[Image:Medium loup.jpg|[[Wolf hunting|Wolf hunt]] depicted in a 14th-century bestiary|thumb|200px|left]]
Wolves were mainly hunted for their skins, to protect [[livestock]], and in some rare cases to protect humans. Pelts were the only considered practical use for wolves, and were usually made into cloaks or mittens, though not without hesitation, due to the wolf's foul odour. There were generally no restrictions or penalties in the civilian hunting of wolves, except in royal game reserves, under the reasoning that the temptation for an intruding commoner to shoot a deer there was too great.<ref name="Bloodsport">{{cite book | author = Griffin, Emma| title = Blood Sport: Hunting in Britain Since 1066 | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0300116281 | page = 296 }}</ref> In 9th-century France, [[Charlemagne]] founded an elite corps of crown-funded officials called "[[Luparii]]", whose purpose was to control wolf populations in [[France]] during the Middle Ages.<ref name="Loups en France">{{cite web | url = http://www.loup.org/spip/L-histoire-du-loup-en-France,400.html | title =L'histoire du loup en France: Chronologie d'une destruction| work = Ivy Stanmore | publisher = Loup.org| access-date = 2008-02-28}}</ref> In [[England]] of 950, [[King Athelstan]] imposed an annual tribute of 300 wolf skins on [[Welsh people|Welsh]] king [[Hywel Dda]], an imposition which was maintained until the [[Norman conquest of England]].<ref name="FB">{{cite book | author = Buczacki, Stefan | title = Fauna Britanica| year = 2005 | isbn = 0600613925 | page = 528 | author-link = Stefan Buczacki }}</ref> The [[Norman dynasty|Norman]] kings (reigning from 1066 to 1152 AD) employed servants as wolf hunters and many{{Who|date=May 2011}} held lands granted on condition they fulfilled this duty. King [[Edward I of England|Edward I]], who reigned from 1272 to 1307, ordered the total extermination of all wolves in the counties of [[Gloucestershire]], [[Herefordshire]], [[Worcestershire]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Staffordshire]], where wolves were more common than in the southern areas of England.<ref name="NK" /> [[James I of Scotland]] passed a law in 1427 requiring 3 wolf hunts a year between 25 April and 1 August, coinciding with the wolf's cubbing season.<ref name="FB" /> The wolf became extinct in England during the reign of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] (1485–1509).<ref name="NK">{{cite web | url = http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/disappearance_of_wolves.html | title = The Disappearance of Wolves in the British Isles | work = Ivy Stanmore | publisher = Wolf Song of Alaska | access-date = 2007-09-27 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070928014325/http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/disappearance_of_wolves.html | archive-date = 2007-09-28 }}</ref> Before its extinction in the British Isles, the wolf was considered by the English nobility as one of the five so called "Royal Beasts of the Chase".<ref name="BOAR">{{cite book | author = Carbanau, Laurent| title = Wild Boar in Europe | year = 2001| isbn = 3829055285}}</ref>
===Other quarry===<!-- This section is linked from [[Boar]] -->
Hunting of bears, especially on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], was popular because of the animal's stamina and strength, and the danger of the hunt. Hunting [[hare]]s using greyhounds or hounds was a popular pastime.{{cn|date=July 2021}}
Some animals were considered inedible, but still hunted for the sport, such as [[fox]]es, [[otter]]s or [[badger]]s.{{cn|date=July 2021}}
== Royal Forests ==
The royal forest was an area of land designated to the king for hunting and forestry; it included woodland, heathland, and agricultural land. As of the 12th century nearly a third of England's territory was assigned as royal forest. Only the king and other permitted members of the nobility were allowed to hunt game in the assigned area. To maintain this restriction, forest law was introduced to enforce the boundaries. Special officials known as [[Forester#Medieval foresters|foresters]] were in charge of overseeing [[Royal forest#Forest law|forest law]]. The foresters were among the most hated of royal officials as they were often corrupt, having a reputation for making illegal side profits on royal forest property by farming, extracting natural resources, and poaching game. They exacted many punishments for poaching game, farming, and other illegal activities on the royal forest. Heavy fines and imprisonment were the common discipline. While foresters were in charge of the upkeep of forest law, sometimes the king would employ the local sheriff to get involved.<ref name="CarlinCrouch2013">{{cite book|editor1=Martha Carlin |editor2=David Crouch|title=Lost Letters of Medieval Life: English Society, 1200-1250|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4LsztHwoQx0C&pg=PA185|date=22 February 2013|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-4459-5|pages=–186|chapter=Lordship and Administration}}</ref> Hunting, however, was not the only function for the royal forest. Kings would also use these territories for cattle upbringing, farming, and extracting the land's resources. They also notably served as reserves for all kinds of wildlife. King Henry I of England was known for having a fascination with pet animals. His parks included wild animals like lions and leopards.<ref name="Stean1993" /> Forest laws in regards to hunting created class distinctions. King Richard II of England issued the first game law in 1390. It constituted a property requirement of certain value to have hunting dogs or other hunting equipment.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medieval Crime and Social Control|last1=Hanawalt|first1=Barbara A.|last2=Wallace|first2=David|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=1998|isbn=9780816631681|location=Minneapolis, MN|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/medievalcrimesoc0000unse}}</ref>
=== Poaching ===
Poaching was a common offense in the Middle Ages. It was an act that was engaged by all of society and was widely tolerated by it. All kinds of poachers engaged in this illegal act, but sometimes it was a highly organized activity. Poachers worked together in rings to accomplish their goals. They would poach game off royal forest property and sell it to commoners for a profit. Sometimes, these rings worked for other lords and even monks to supply them. The lords and monks in turn would either own consumption or sell it in the common marketplace for a profit. Game would not be the only item poached from royal forests. Many sought after its resources with wood in particular a highly sought commodity. Often the arresting of poachers did not end cleanly. Poachers would resist arrest, sometimes resorting to assaulting and shooting foresters to escape. There is a recorded instance of St Thomas Becket performing a miracle by healing a forester shot in the throat by poachers. Sometimes the nobility would engage in poaching by either taking more game than permitted or by hunting in a restricted area.<ref name="CarlinCrouch2013" />
== Art and symbolism ==
{{unreferenced section|date=March 2013}}
{{multiple image
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Like everything else in the Middle Ages, hunting was full of symbolism. Religious symbolism was common; the hart or the [[unicorn]] was often associated with Christ, but the hunt itself could equally be seen as the Christian's quest for truth and [[salvation]]. In the more secular literature, [[Romance (heroic literature)|romances]] for instance, the hunter pursuing his quarry was often used as a symbol of the knight's struggle for his lady's favor.
[[Hagiography]], notably the lives of [[Saint Eustace]], [[Saint Hubert]] and [[Julian the Hospitaller|Saint Julian]] provided many opportunities for medieval artists to express hunting in [[illuminated manuscripts]] and [[stained glass]]. The "minor arts" such as wooden chests, tapestries and wall paintings also depict such scenes. In the 14th and 15th centuries the most detailed [http://www.larsdatter.com/hunting.htm hunting images] are found in illuminated manuscripts.
==Dangers of the hunt==
Hunting could be extremely dangerous and serious injuries and deaths among the hunters were not uncommon. Even kings and emperors were not immune to hunting accidents. Those killed while hunting include:
*[[Byzantine emperor|Emperor]] [[Basil I]] - died after an accident in which his belt was caught in the antlers of a deer
*[[Byzantine emperor|Emperor]] [[John II Komnenos]] - killed after accidentally pricking himself with poison arrows
*[[Richard, son of William the Conqueror|Richard of Normandy]] - second son of [[William the Conqueror]], mauled by a stag in the [[New Forest]]
*[[William II of England|King William II]] - Richard's brother, killed with an arrow in the New Forest three decades later. Widely suspected to be a murder, but is unproven.
*[[Fulk of Jerusalem|King Fulk of Jerusalem]] - crushed under his horse after a fall while hunting
*[[Valdemar the Young]] - co-ruler of Denmark, accidentally shot on a hunt
*[[Dagobert II|King Dagobert II]] - King of Austrasia, killed in a hunting 'accident', perhaps on the orders of the Mayor of the Palace, Pepin of Herstal.
*[[Aistulf|King Aistulf]] - King of the [[Lombards]], killed in a hunting accident near Pavia. Might have been murdered, although this is uncertain.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lawler|first=Jennifer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEWeCQAAQBAJ&q=king+aistulf+death&pg=PA238|title=Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire|date=2015-05-20|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-1-4766-0929-4|language=en}}</ref>
==Literature==
Hunting was a subject considered worthy of the attention of the greatest of men, and several prominent peers, kings and emperors wrote books on the topic. Among the best known sources for medieval hunting we have today, by nobles or others, are:
*''[[De arte venandi cum avibus]]'', [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]
*''Les livres du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio'' (1354–1376), attributed to a "Henri de Ferrières" about whom nothing is known.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arlima.net/no/371|title = Arlima - Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge}}</ref><ref>[[iarchive:lelivreduroymod00unkngoog|Le livre du roy Modus et de la royne Racio]], edited by [[Elzéar Blaze]] (Paris, 1839) on [[Internet Archive]].</ref>
*''Le Roman des Deduis'' (before 1377), [[Gace de la Buigne]].
*''[[Gaston III, Count of Foix#Livre de chasse (Book of the Hunt)|Livre de Chasse]]'' (1387–1389), [[Gaston III, Count of Foix|Gaston III (Phėbus) Phoebus]], Count of Foix. Various copies with excellent illustrations. Also known as ''Book of The Hunt''.
**''[[The Master of Game]]'', [[Edward, Duke of York]] (partial English translation of Phoebus & Twiti)[https://archive.org/details/masterofgameoldexx00edwa]
*''La chasse royale'', [[Charles IX of France]]
*''Libro de la montería'', [[Alfonso XI of Castile]]
==See also==
*[[Bear hunting]]
*[[Boar hunting]]
*[[Fox hunting]]
*[[Grand Falconer of France]]
*[[Grand Huntsman of France]]
*[[Grand Huntsman of Brabant]]
*[[Hunting]]
*[[Hunting dog]]
*[[Protokynegos]]
*[[Prothierakarios]]
*[[Charles Gautier de Vinfrais]]
*[[Wolf hunting]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
== Sources ==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001628/http://apps.buckscc.gov.uk/eforms/medieval_life/pdfs/The_Medieval_Hunt.pdf The Medieval Hunt] Buckinghamshire City Council.
*Richard Almond (2003). ''Medieval Hunting''. {{ISBN|0-7509-2162-5}}
*Gerard Brault (1985). "Hunting and Fowling, Western European". ''Dictionary of the Middle Ages'' vol.6, pp. 356–363. {{ISBN|0-684-18168-1}}
*John Cummins (1988, new paperback edition 2001). ''The Hound and the Hawk: The Art of Medieval Hunting''. {{ISBN|1-84212-097-2}}
*David Dalby, ''Lexicon of the Mediaeval German Hunt: A Lexicon of Middle High German Terms (1050–1500), Associated with the Chase, Hunting with Bows, Falconry, Trapping and Fowling'', Walter de Gruyter, 1965, {{ISBN|9783110818604}}.
*Emma Griffin (2009). ''Blood Sport: Hunting in Britain since 1066''. {{ISBN|0-300-11628-4}}
*C. M. Woolgar. ''The Great Household in Late Medieval England''. {{ISBN|0-300-07687-8}}
==External links==
*[http://www.arlima.net/ad/chasse.html Bibliography of medieval hunting treatises] at Arlima - Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge
*[http://www.larsdatter.com/hunting.htm Hunt Scenes in Medieval and Renaissance Works of Art]
*[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/10940 ''Manners, Custom and Dress During the Middle Ages and During the Renaissance Period''], Paul Lacroix. At gutenberg.org
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050710081532/http://users.cybercity.dk/~ccc12787/bibacci/hist.html Bibliotheca Accipitraria: History of falconry:] a bibliography (35 items)
{{Middle Ages}}
[[Category:Medieval society]]
[[Category:History of hunting]]
[[de:Parforcejagd]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '<big>{{Short description|Aristocratic hunting practice}}
{{More citations needed|date=May 2011}}
[[Image:Bayeux hawking.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[William I of England|King William I]] and [[Harold II of England|King Harold II]] of [[England]], [[Bayeux Tapestry]].]]
'''Royal hunting''', also '''royal art of hunting''', was a [[hunting]] practice of the [[aristocracy]] throughout the known world in the [[Middle Ages]], from [[Europe]] to [[Far East]]. While humans hunted wild animals time immemorial, and all classes engaged in hunting as an important source of food and at times the principal source of nutrition. The necessity of hunting was transformed into a stylized pastime of the aristocracy. More than a pastime,l interaction, essential training for war, and a privilege and measurement of [[nobility]]. In Europe in the [[High Middle Ages]] the practice was widespread.
==History==
hi rowan see this article lol its me haha hi cienna. [[Kings of Assyria|Assyrian kings]] hunted [[lion]]s from [[chariot]]s in a demonstration of their royal nature. In Roman law, property included the right to hunt, a concept which continued under the Frankish [[Merovingian]] and [[Carolingian]] monarchs who considered the entire kingdom to be their property, but who also controlled enormous royal domains as hunting reserves (''forests''). The biography of the Merovingian noble [[Saint Hubert]] (died 727/728) recounts how hunting could become an obsession. Carolingian [[Charlemagne]] loved to hunt and did so up until his death at age seventy-two.when he ate some bad pizza
With the breakup of the Carolingian Empire, local lords strove to maintain and monopolize the reserves and the taking of big game in forest reserves, and small game in [[warren (free)|warrens]]. They were most successful in England after the [[Norman Conquest]], and in [[Gascony]] from the 12th century. These were large sanctuaries of woodland—the [[royal forest]]—where populations of [[Game (food)|game animal]]s were kept and watched over by [[gamekeeper]]s. Here the peasantry could not hunt, [[poaching]] being subject to severe punishment: the injustice of such "emparked" preserves was a common cause of complaint in populist [[vernacular literature]]. The lower classes mostly had to content themselves with snaring birds and smaller game outside of forest reserves and warrens.
By the 16th century, areas of land reserved for breeding and hunting of game were of three kinds, according to their degree of enclosure and being subject to Forest Laws: ''Forests'', large unenclosed areas of wilderness, ''[[Chase (land)|Chases]]'', which normally belonged to nobles, rather than the crown, and ''[[Medieval deer park|Parks]]'', which were enclosed, and not subject to Forest Laws.<ref>[[OED]]{{clarify|date=July 2017}}</ref>
==Terminology==
{{see|Livre de chasse|Book of Saint Albans}}
One of the striking things about medieval hunting is its devotion to terminology. All aspects of the hunt – each different animal to be hunted, in each year of its development, each of its body parts, each stage of the chase, each feature of the hounds' behaviour – had its separate term. Knowledge and (partly whimsical) extension of this terminology became a courtly fashion in the 14th century in [[medieval France|France]] and [[England in the Late Middle Ages|England]].
Medieval books of hunting laid huge stress on the importance of correct terminology, a tradition which was further extended to great lengths in the [[Renaissance]] period.<ref name=Livre>{{cite book |last1=du Fouilloux |first1=Jaques |title=La Venerie de Jaques du Fouilloux|url=http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~wulfric/rentexte/fouillou |year=1561}}</ref><ref name=Turbervile>{{cite book |last1=Turbervile |first1=George |author-link1=George Turbervile |title=The Noble Art of Venerie or Huntyng (A translation of du Fouilloux) |url=https://archive.org/stream/turbervilesbook00turbgoog |year=1575}}</ref>
The invention of the "fair terms" of hunting was attributed by [[Malory]] and others to the [[Arthurian]] knight [[Tristan|Sir Tristram]],<ref name=Malory>{{cite book |last1=Malory |first1=Sir Thomas |author-link1=Thomas Malory |editor1-first=Eugène |editor1-last=Vinaver |editor1-link=Eugène Vinaver |title=Works |year=1485}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=June 2022}} who is seen both as the model of the noble huntsman, and the originator of its ritual:
<blockquote>As he [Sir Tristram] grew in power and strength he laboured in hunting and hawking – never a gentleman that we ever heard of did more. And as the book says he devised good fanfares to blow for beasts of venery, and beasts of the chase and all kinds of vermin, and all the terms we still have in hawking and hunting. And therefore the book of venery, of hawking and hunting, is called Sir Tristram's. Therefore all gentlemen who bear old [coats of] arms ought to honour Sir Tristram for the goodly terms that gentlemen have and use, and shall until Doomsday, that through them all men of respect may distinguish a gentleman from a yeoman and a yeoman from a villein. (''Modernised'')
</blockquote>
== How hunts were conducted ==
English and French accounts agree on the general makeup of a hunt—they were well-planned so that everyone knew his role before going out. The hunt ''[[Persistence hunting#Parforce hunting|par force]]'' required each participant to have a specific role. If someone slipped in his role, not only could he easily get lost, but it put the rest of the group in danger by exposure. Many nobles hunted ''par force'', for a multitude of reasons, but above all because it was considered the purest and noblest form of hunting. The ritual of the hunt was meant to heighten danger within a controlled context. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, argued against hunters taking game in more efficient ways such as by bow and arrow or by setting traps, saying, "I speak of this against my will, for I should only teach how to take beasts nobly and gently" ("mes de ce parle je mal voulentiers, quar je ne devroye enseigner a prendre les bestes si n'est par noblesce et gentillesce"). Hunters like Gaston only wanted some meat lol, but rather for the process of the hunt, preferring ritual over efficiency.<ref name="Crane2012">{{cite book|author=Susan Crane|title=Animal Encounters: Contacts and Concepts in Medieval Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLHomhe_fMUC&pg=PA107|date=29 November 2012|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0630-2|page=107}}</ref> This mode of hunting was also important in the upbringing of noble youths. Boys at the age of 7 or 8 years began to learn how to handle a horse, travel with a company in forests, and utilize a weapon, practicing these skills in hunting groups. As a result, young men in the nobility and royalty were able to transfer acquired skills such as horsemanship, weapons management, wood-crafting, terrain assessment, and strategy formation from the hunting grounds to the battlefield in wars. Hunting also cultivated their education, and taught them the importance of ritual and noble acts.<ref name="Stean1993">{{Cite book|title=The Archaeology of Medieval English Monarchy|last=Steane|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=9780713472462|location=New York}}</ref>
==Equipment==
[[Image:Medieval women hunting.jpg|thumb|250px|Medieval women hunting, illustration from a period manuscript.]]
The weapons used for hunting would mostly be the same as those used for war: [[bow and arrow|bow]], [[crossbow]], [[lance]] or [[spear]], [[knife]] and [[sword]]. Bows were the most commonly used weapon. Although the crossbow was introduced around the time of the [[First Crusade]] (1100), it was not generally used for hunting until the second half of the 15th century. Cudgels (clubs) were used for clubbing small game in particular by women who joined the hunt. "Boar spears" were also used. With the introduction of handheld [[firearm]]s to hunting in the 16th century, traditional medieval hunting was transformed.
The hunter would also need a [[French horn|horn]] for communication with the other hunters. In addition to this the hunter depended on the assistance of certain domesticated animals. Three animals in particular were essential tools for the medieval hunter: the [[horse]], the [[hound]] and the [[hawk]] or [[falcon]].
===Horse===
{{main|Medieval horses}}
The horse was the most important animal of the great medieval household. The [[stable]]s, also called the "marshalsea," would be separate from the rest of the household, and its head officer—the [[marshal]]—would be one of the household's senior officers. The marshal would have [[Page (occupation)|page]]s and [[Groom (horses)|groom]]s serving under him to care for the horses.
A large household would have a wide array of horses for different purposes. There were cart- and [[packhorse]]s employed in the day-to-day work of the household, [[palfrey]]s used for human transport, and [[destrier]]s, or warhorses, a powerful and expensive animal that in late medieval England could obtain prices of up to £80. Although it had the necessary qualities, the destrier would not be used for hunting, due to its value. Instead, a special breed called a [[courser (horse)|courser]] would be used. The courser, though inferior to the destrier and much smaller than today's horses, still had to be powerful enough to carry the rider at high speeds over large distances, agile, so it could maneuver difficult terrain without difficulty, and fearless enough not to be scared when encountering wild beasts.
===Hound===
[[Image:Medieval hounds2.png|thumb|300px|left|Different breeds of medieval dogs]]
The dog was essential for several purposes. Its good sense of smell made it invaluable in finding the quarry. It would then assist in driving the hunted animal and, when the animal was finally at bay, the dog would either be the instrument of attack, or distract the quarry while the hunter moved in for the kill. Different breeds would be used for different tasks, and for different sorts of game, and while some of these breeds are recognizable to us today, the dogs were nevertheless somewhat different from modern breeds.
Foremost among the hunting breeds was the [[greyhound]]. This breed was valued first and foremost for its speed, but also for its ability to attack and take down the game. Since the greyhound did not have much stamina, it was essential that it be not released before the quarry was in sight, toward the end of the hunt. Furthermore, greyhounds, though aggressive hunters, were valued for their docile temper at home, and often allowed inside as pets.
The [[alaunt]], or alant, was a somewhat more robust animal than the greyhound, and therefore used against larger game, such as bears or boars. The alaunt was considered a reckless animal, and had been known to attack domestic animals, or even its owner. The [[English Mastiff|mastiff]] was an even more rugged breed, and though also used on the larger game, was mostly considered useful as a guard-dog.
What all these dogs lacked was the ability to follow the scent of the quarry, and run it down. For this purpose the [[rache|running-hound]] was used. The running-hound was somewhat similar to today's [[foxhound]]. This dog had, as the name indicates, excellent stamina, as well as a good nose. Another dog valued for its scenting skills was the [[Limer|lymer]], a forerunner of today's [[bloodhound]]. Handled on a long leash, the lymer would be used to find the lay of the game before the hunt even started, and it was therefore important that, in addition to having a good nose, it remained quiet. Silence in the lymer was achieved through a combination of breeding and training. Other dogs used for hunting were the kennet (a small hunting dog, from ONF 'kenet', a diminutive of 'chien'), the [[terrier]], the [[harrier (dog)|harrier]] and the [[spaniel]].
The hounds were kept in a [[kennel]], inside or separate from the main domicile. Here the dogs would have oak beds to sleep on, and often also a second level where the dogs could go when the ground level became too hot or too cold. Outside the kennel there would be grass for the dogs to eat whenever they had digestive problems. To care for the dogs would be a hierarchy of servants such as pages, varlets, aides and veneurs; the page being the lowest, often a young boy. Pages would often sleep in the kennels with the dogs, to keep them from fighting and care for them if they got sick. Though this might seem harsh by modern standards, the warm dog house could often be much more comfortable than the sleeping quarters of other medieval servants.
===Hawks and Falcons===
[[File:Konradin.jpg|thumb|250px|A portrait of [[Conradin]] hawking, from the [[Codex Manesse]] (Folio 7r).]]
Medieval terminology spoke of hawks of the tower and hawks of the fist, which roughly corresponds to falcons and hawks, respectively. The female hawk was preferred, since it was both larger than the male and easier to train. A male [[saker falcon]] is approximately two thirds of the weight of a female;<ref name="Oggins2004">{{cite book|author=Robin S. Oggins|title=The Kings and Their Hawks: Falconry in Medieval England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSOMTo4ZoM8C&pg=PA15|year=2004|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-10058-7|page=15}}</ref> falconers call male peregrines ''tiercels'', derived from the Latin word for "third".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Most Female Raptors Are Bigger and Stronger Than Males, but Why? |journal=Audubon |date=12 March 2018 |url=https://www.audubon.org/news/most-female-raptors-are-bigger-and-stronger-males-why |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312183026/http://www.audubon.org/news/most-female-raptors-are-bigger-and-stronger-males-why|archive-date=12 March 2018|publisher=National Audubon Society |language=en}}</ref> Hawks were captured all over Europe, but birds from [[Norway]] or [[Iceland]] were considered of particularly good quality.
Falconry, a common activity in the Middle Ages, was the training of falcons and hawks for personal usage, which included hunting game. Falcons and hawks have different physical makeups which affects their mode of hunting. Ducks, herons, and cranes were the common game hunted by falcons and hawks. The main differences between the two species of birds lies in their wings and tails. Falcons have long, narrow wings with a long tapered tail. As a result, they fly at incredibly high levels. To kill game, they elevate high up in the sky and then dive at their target. Their dives can go up to 200 mph. They utilized their talons on the downward dive to slash game. Usually their strikes kill the game with the first slash. Hawks, however, have shorter, rounder wings and longer tails. They glide along at lower altitudes. To kill their game, they glide toward their target and then use a burst of speed to close in. They utilize their talons to dig in and clutch onto their game until it is dead. As a result of their makeups, falcons and hawks were utilized by owners for different terrains. Falcons were used in open fields while hawks were used in marshlands and woodland.
Training a hawk was a painstaking process. It was normal at first to "seel" the bird's eyelids—sew them shut—so that it would not be scared or distracted. The trainer would then carry the hawk on his arm for several days, to get it accustomed to human presence. The eyes would gradually be unseeled, and the training would begin. (Seeling is no longer practised in falconry and is illegal in most countries). The bird would be encouraged to fly from its perch to the falconer's hand over a gradually longer distance. Hunting game would be encouraged first by the use of meat, then a [[lure (falconry)|lure]], and eventually live prey. Such prey included [[heron]]s, sometime with their legs broken to facilitate the kill.
Hawks would be housed in [[Mews (falconry)|mews]], a special edifice found in most large medieval households, mostly a certain distance from the main domicile, so that the hawks would not be disturbed. The mews could be rather elaborate structures. There would be windows in the wall, and the ground would be kept clean so that the bird's regurgitations could be found and analyzed.
Among the species used were:
*[[Hawk]]s
**[[Northern goshawk|Goshawk]]
**[[Eurasian sparrowhawk|Sparrowhawk]]
*[[Falcon]]s
**[[Gyr falcon|Gyrfalcon]]
**[[Eurasian hobby|Hobby]]
**[[Lanner falcon|Lanner]]
**[[Merlin (bird)|Merlin]]
**[[Peregrine falcon|Peregrine]]
**[[Saker falcon|Saker]]
Of all the falcons, the gyrfalcon was considered the best one. They were thought of the highest quality when white ones were imported from Greenland. King Frederick II considered them the best "out of respect to their size, strength, audacity, and swiftness".<ref name="Stean1993"/> Of the hawks, the goshawk was the most highly valued. They were more expensive and brought in more money for training. Goshawks from Scandinavia in particular were highly sought after.
==Quarry==
Most of the larger, wild mammals could be hunted. Different animals were valued for different qualities; both in the hunt itself, and in the meat and the fur they produced.
===Hart===
[[Image:Deerhunting.png|left|thumb|[[Deer hunting]]]]
The king of all the wild animals was the [[deer]], and more precisely the [[hart (deer)|hart]], which is an adult male of the [[red deer]]. The hart was classified by the number of tines, or points, on its [[antler]]s. An animal should have at least ten tines to be considered worthy of hunting; this was referred to as a "hart of ten."<ref name=Turbervile/> Deer could be hunted in two different ways: ''par force'' ("by strength" and thereunder ''par force de chiens'' ("by force of dogs" )), and bow and stable.
Hunting ''par force'' was considered the noblest form of hunting. In this process the game was run down and exhausted by the dogs before the kill was made. ''Par force'' hunting consisted of eight parts: the quest, the assembly, the relays, the moving or un-harboring, the chase, the baying, the unmaking and the ''curée''.
*'''Quest''': Before the hunt started, an expert huntsman, accompanied by a [[limer|lymer]], would seek out the quarry. By the help of tracks, broken branches and droppings he would try to locate the lay of the hart as accurately as possible; ideally he would see it.
[[Image:MedHartHunt.jpg|thumb|300px|Picture from ''Livre de la Chasse'' showing relays of running hounds set on the path of the hart]]
*'''Assembly''': Then, early on the day of the hunt, the hunting party would meet, examine the huntsman's information and the deer's droppings, and agree on how best to conduct the hunt. This would be a social gathering also, with breakfast served.
*'''Relays''': When the path of the hart had been predicted, relays of dogs were positioned along it. This way, it was assured that the dogs were not worn out before the hart.
*'''Moving''': Also called the ''fynding''. Here a lymer was used to track down the hart.
*'''Chase''': This was the hunt proper; here it was essential to keep the hounds on the track of the selected quarry.
*'''Baying''': When the hart could run no longer, it would turn and try to defend itself. It was said to be "at bay." The hounds should now be kept from attacking, and the most prominent man in the hunting party would make the kill, with a sword or spear.
*'''Unmaking''': The deer was finally dissected in a careful, ritualistic manner.
*'''Curée''': Lastly, the dogs had to be rewarded with pieces of the carcass, in a manner so that they would associate their effort with the reward.
Hunting "by bow and stable" had less prestige, but could produce greater results. The quarry, often a whole herd, would be driven by hounds to a predetermined place. Here archers would be ready to kill the animals with bow and arrow. The subtlest form of hunting, and also the most productive relative to the forces used, was described by the German knight Guicennas. This was a party of two or three men on foot advancing slowly and quietly with partial concealment from horses (literal 'stalking horses' - because deer are relatively unalarmed by quadrupeds), so as to induce the deer to move without undue alarm into range of concealed archers. This required patience, a low profile attitude, and a deep appreciation of animal psychology.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}
The hart was a highly respected animal, and had great [[symbol]]ic and [[mythology|mythological]] significance. It was often compared to [[Christ]] for its suffering; a well-known story tells of how [[Saint Eustace|St. Eustace]] was converted to Christianity by seeing a crucifix between the antlers of a stag while hunting. A similar story is attributed to [[Hubertus|St. Hubert]]. Other stories told of how the hart could become several hundred years old, and how a bone in the middle of its heart prevented it from dying of fear.
===Boar===
[[Image:Boarhunting2.jpg|thumb|right|Unmaking the boar, from the [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry|Très Riches Heures]]]]{{Main|Boar hunting}}
Unlike the Romans for whom hunting [[boar]] was considered a simple pastime, the hunting of boars in Medieval Europe was mostly done by nobles for the purpose of honing martial skill. It was traditional for the noble to dismount his horse once the boar was cornered and to finish it with a dagger. To increase the challenge, some hunters would commence their sport at the mating season, when the animals were more aggressive. Records show that wild boar were abundant in medieval Europe; this is correlated by documents from noble families and the clergy demanding tribute from commoners in the form of boar carcasses or body parts. In 1015 for example, the [[Doge (title)|Doge]] [[Ottone Orseolo]] demanded for himself and his successors the head and feet of every boar killed in his area of influence.<ref name="Nera">{{cite book | author= Scheggi, Massimo | title= La Bestia Nera: Caccia al Cinghiale fra Mito, Storia e Attualità | year= 1999 | isbn=8825379048 | page= 201 |language=it}}</ref> The boar was a highly dangerous animal to hunt; it would fight ferociously when under attack, and could easily kill a dog, a horse, or a man. It was hunted ''par force'', and when at bay, a hound like a mastiff could perhaps be foolhardy enough to attack it, but ideally it should be killed by a rider with a [[Boar spear|spear]]. The boar was sometimes considered a malicious animal, and even had [[satan]]ic associations. It was also respected for its tenacity and appears frequently as a heraldic charge.
===Wolf===
{{Main|Wolf hunting}}
[[Image:Medium loup.jpg|[[Wolf hunting|Wolf hunt]] depicted in a 14th-century bestiary|thumb|200px|left]]
Wolves were mainly hunted for their skins, to protect [[livestock]], and in some rare cases to protect humans. Pelts were the only considered practical use for wolves, and were usually made into cloaks or mittens, though not without hesitation, due to the wolf's foul odour. There were generally no restrictions or penalties in the civilian hunting of wolves, except in royal game reserves, under the reasoning that the temptation for an intruding commoner to shoot a deer there was too great.<ref name="Bloodsport">{{cite book | author = Griffin, Emma| title = Blood Sport: Hunting in Britain Since 1066 | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0300116281 | page = 296 }}</ref> In 9th-century France, [[Charlemagne]] founded an elite corps of crown-funded officials called "[[Luparii]]", whose purpose was to control wolf populations in [[France]] during the Middle Ages.<ref name="Loups en France">{{cite web | url = http://www.loup.org/spip/L-histoire-du-loup-en-France,400.html | title =L'histoire du loup en France: Chronologie d'une destruction| work = Ivy Stanmore | publisher = Loup.org| access-date = 2008-02-28}}</ref> In [[England]] of 950, [[King Athelstan]] imposed an annual tribute of 300 wolf skins on [[Welsh people|Welsh]] king [[Hywel Dda]], an imposition which was maintained until the [[Norman conquest of England]].<ref name="FB">{{cite book | author = Buczacki, Stefan | title = Fauna Britanica| year = 2005 | isbn = 0600613925 | page = 528 | author-link = Stefan Buczacki }}</ref> The [[Norman dynasty|Norman]] kings (reigning from 1066 to 1152 AD) employed servants as wolf hunters and many{{Who|date=May 2011}} held lands granted on condition they fulfilled this duty. King [[Edward I of England|Edward I]], who reigned from 1272 to 1307, ordered the total extermination of all wolves in the counties of [[Gloucestershire]], [[Herefordshire]], [[Worcestershire]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Staffordshire]], where wolves were more common than in the southern areas of England.<ref name="NK" /> [[James I of Scotland]] passed a law in 1427 requiring 3 wolf hunts a year between 25 April and 1 August, coinciding with the wolf's cubbing season.<ref name="FB" /> The wolf became extinct in England during the reign of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] (1485–1509).<ref name="NK">{{cite web | url = http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/disappearance_of_wolves.html | title = The Disappearance of Wolves in the British Isles | work = Ivy Stanmore | publisher = Wolf Song of Alaska | access-date = 2007-09-27 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070928014325/http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/disappearance_of_wolves.html | archive-date = 2007-09-28 }}</ref> Before its extinction in the British Isles, the wolf was considered by the English nobility as one of the five so called "Royal Beasts of the Chase".<ref name="BOAR">{{cite book | author = Carbanau, Laurent| title = Wild Boar in Europe | year = 2001| isbn = 3829055285}}</ref>
===Other quarry===<!-- This section is linked from [[Boar]] -->
Hunting of bears, especially on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], was popular because of the animal's stamina and strength, and the danger of the hunt. Hunting [[hare]]s using greyhounds or hounds was a popular pastime.{{cn|date=July 2021}}
Some animals were considered inedible, but still hunted for the sport, such as [[fox]]es, [[otter]]s or [[badger]]s.{{cn|date=July 2021}}
== Royal Forests ==
The royal forest was an area of land designated to the king for hunting and forestry; it included woodland, heathland, and agricultural land. As of the 12th century nearly a third of England's territory was assigned as royal forest. Only the king and other permitted members of the nobility were allowed to hunt game in the assigned area. To maintain this restriction, forest law was introduced to enforce the boundaries. Special officials known as [[Forester#Medieval foresters|foresters]] were in charge of overseeing [[Royal forest#Forest law|forest law]]. The foresters were among the most hated of royal officials as they were often corrupt, having a reputation for making illegal side profits on royal forest property by farming, extracting natural resources, and poaching game. They exacted many punishments for poaching game, farming, and other illegal activities on the royal forest. Heavy fines and imprisonment were the common discipline. While foresters were in charge of the upkeep of forest law, sometimes the king would employ the local sheriff to get involved.<ref name="CarlinCrouch2013">{{cite book|editor1=Martha Carlin |editor2=David Crouch|title=Lost Letters of Medieval Life: English Society, 1200-1250|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4LsztHwoQx0C&pg=PA185|date=22 February 2013|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-4459-5|pages=–186|chapter=Lordship and Administration}}</ref> Hunting, however, was not the only function for the royal forest. Kings would also use these territories for cattle upbringing, farming, and extracting the land's resources. They also notably served as reserves for all kinds of wildlife. King Henry I of England was known for having a fascination with pet animals. His parks included wild animals like lions and leopards.<ref name="Stean1993" /> Forest laws in regards to hunting created class distinctions. King Richard II of England issued the first game law in 1390. It constituted a property requirement of certain value to have hunting dogs or other hunting equipment.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medieval Crime and Social Control|last1=Hanawalt|first1=Barbara A.|last2=Wallace|first2=David|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=1998|isbn=9780816631681|location=Minneapolis, MN|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/medievalcrimesoc0000unse}}</ref>
=== Poaching ===
Poaching was a common offense in the Middle Ages. It was an act that was engaged by all of society and was widely tolerated by it. All kinds of poachers engaged in this illegal act, but sometimes it was a highly organized activity. Poachers worked together in rings to accomplish their goals. They would poach game off royal forest property and sell it to commoners for a profit. Sometimes, these rings worked for other lords and even monks to supply them. The lords and monks in turn would either own consumption or sell it in the common marketplace for a profit. Game would not be the only item poached from royal forests. Many sought after its resources with wood in particular a highly sought commodity. Often the arresting of poachers did not end cleanly. Poachers would resist arrest, sometimes resorting to assaulting and shooting foresters to escape. There is a recorded instance of St Thomas Becket performing a miracle by healing a forester shot in the throat by poachers. Sometimes the nobility would engage in poaching by either taking more game than permitted or by hunting in a restricted area.<ref name="CarlinCrouch2013" />
== Art and symbolism ==
{{unreferenced section|date=March 2013}}
{{multiple image
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| width1 = 180
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| caption1 =
| image2 = Ludlow hunting tile - stag.jpg
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| footer = Medieval floor tiles from [[Ludlow]], England, part of a set showing a hunting hound and stag
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Like everything else in the Middle Ages, hunting was full of symbolism. Religious symbolism was common; the hart or the [[unicorn]] was often associated with Christ, but the hunt itself could equally be seen as the Christian's quest for truth and [[salvation]]. In the more secular literature, [[Romance (heroic literature)|romances]] for instance, the hunter pursuing his quarry was often used as a symbol of the knight's struggle for his lady's favor.
[[Hagiography]], notably the lives of [[Saint Eustace]], [[Saint Hubert]] and [[Julian the Hospitaller|Saint Julian]] provided many opportunities for medieval artists to express hunting in [[illuminated manuscripts]] and [[stained glass]]. The "minor arts" such as wooden chests, tapestries and wall paintings also depict such scenes. In the 14th and 15th centuries the most detailed [http://www.larsdatter.com/hunting.htm hunting images] are found in illuminated manuscripts.
==Dangers of the hunt==
Hunting could be extremely dangerous and serious injuries and deaths among the hunters were not uncommon. Even kings and emperors were not immune to hunting accidents. Those killed while hunting include:
*[[Byzantine emperor|Emperor]] [[Basil I]] - died after an accident in which his belt was caught in the antlers of a deer
*[[Byzantine emperor|Emperor]] [[John II Komnenos]] - killed after accidentally pricking himself with poison arrows
*[[Richard, son of William the Conqueror|Richard of Normandy]] - second son of [[William the Conqueror]], mauled by a stag in the [[New Forest]]
*[[William II of England|King William II]] - Richard's brother, killed with an arrow in the New Forest three decades later. Widely suspected to be a murder, but is unproven.
*[[Fulk of Jerusalem|King Fulk of Jerusalem]] - crushed under his horse after a fall while hunting
*[[Valdemar the Young]] - co-ruler of Denmark, accidentally shot on a hunt
*[[Dagobert II|King Dagobert II]] - King of Austrasia, killed in a hunting 'accident', perhaps on the orders of the Mayor of the Palace, Pepin of Herstal.
*[[Aistulf|King Aistulf]] - King of the [[Lombards]], killed in a hunting accident near Pavia. Might have been murdered, although this is uncertain.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lawler|first=Jennifer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEWeCQAAQBAJ&q=king+aistulf+death&pg=PA238|title=Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire|date=2015-05-20|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-1-4766-0929-4|language=en}}</ref>
==Literature==
Hunting was a subject considered worthy of the attention of the greatest of men, and several prominent peers, kings and emperors wrote books on the topic. Among the best known sources for medieval hunting we have today, by nobles or others, are:
*''[[De arte venandi cum avibus]]'', [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]
*''Les livres du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio'' (1354–1376), attributed to a "Henri de Ferrières" about whom nothing is known.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arlima.net/no/371|title = Arlima - Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge}}</ref><ref>[[iarchive:lelivreduroymod00unkngoog|Le livre du roy Modus et de la royne Racio]], edited by [[Elzéar Blaze]] (Paris, 1839) on [[Internet Archive]].</ref>
*''Le Roman des Deduis'' (before 1377), [[Gace de la Buigne]].
*''[[Gaston III, Count of Foix#Livre de chasse (Book of the Hunt)|Livre de Chasse]]'' (1387–1389), [[Gaston III, Count of Foix|Gaston III (Phėbus) Phoebus]], Count of Foix. Various copies with excellent illustrations. Also known as ''Book of The Hunt''.
**''[[The Master of Game]]'', [[Edward, Duke of York]] (partial English translation of Phoebus & Twiti)[https://archive.org/details/masterofgameoldexx00edwa]
*''La chasse royale'', [[Charles IX of France]]
*''Libro de la montería'', [[Alfonso XI of Castile]]
==See also==
*[[Bear hunting]]
*[[Boar hunting]]
*[[Fox hunting]]
*[[Grand Falconer of France]]
*[[Grand Huntsman of France]]
*[[Grand Huntsman of Brabant]]
*[[Hunting]]
*[[Hunting dog]]
*[[Protokynegos]]
*[[Prothierakarios]]
*[[Charles Gautier de Vinfrais]]
*[[Wolf hunting]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
== Sources ==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001628/http://apps.buckscc.gov.uk/eforms/medieval_life/pdfs/The_Medieval_Hunt.pdf The Medieval Hunt] Buckinghamshire City Council.
*Richard Almond (2003). ''Medieval Hunting''. {{ISBN|0-7509-2162-5}}
*Gerard Brault (1985). "Hunting and Fowling, Western European". ''Dictionary of the Middle Ages'' vol.6, pp. 356–363. {{ISBN|0-684-18168-1}}
*John Cummins (1988, new paperback edition 2001). ''The Hound and the Hawk: The Art of Medieval Hunting''. {{ISBN|1-84212-097-2}}
*David Dalby, ''Lexicon of the Mediaeval German Hunt: A Lexicon of Middle High German Terms (1050–1500), Associated with the Chase, Hunting with Bows, Falconry, Trapping and Fowling'', Walter de Gruyter, 1965, {{ISBN|9783110818604}}.
*Emma Griffin (2009). ''Blood Sport: Hunting in Britain since 1066''. {{ISBN|0-300-11628-4}}
*C. M. Woolgar. ''The Great Household in Late Medieval England''. {{ISBN|0-300-07687-8}}
==External links==
*[http://www.arlima.net/ad/chasse.html Bibliography of medieval hunting treatises] at Arlima - Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge
*[http://www.larsdatter.com/hunting.htm Hunt Scenes in Medieval and Renaissance Works of Art]
*[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/10940 ''Manners, Custom and Dress During the Middle Ages and During the Renaissance Period''], Paul Lacroix. At gutenberg.org
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050710081532/http://users.cybercity.dk/~ccc12787/bibacci/hist.html Bibliotheca Accipitraria: History of falconry:] a bibliography (35 items)
{{Middle Ages}}
[[Category:Medieval society]]
[[Category:History of hunting]]
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{{More citations needed|date=May 2011}}
[[Image:Bayeux hawking.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[William I of England|King William I]] and [[Harold II of England|King Harold II]] of [[England]], [[Bayeux Tapestry]].]]
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==History==
-Hieratic formalized recreational hunting has taken place since [[Kings of Assyria|Assyrian kings]] hunted [[lion]]s from [[chariot]]s in a demonstration of their royal nature. In Roman law, property included the right to hunt, a concept which continued under the Frankish [[Merovingian]] and [[Carolingian]] monarchs who considered the entire kingdom to be their property, but who also controlled enormous royal domains as hunting reserves (''forests''). The biography of the Merovingian noble [[Saint Hubert]] (died 727/728) recounts how hunting could become an obsession. Carolingian [[Charlemagne]] loved to hunt and did so up until his death at age seventy-two.
+hi rowan see this article lol its me haha hi cienna. [[Kings of Assyria|Assyrian kings]] hunted [[lion]]s from [[chariot]]s in a demonstration of their royal nature. In Roman law, property included the right to hunt, a concept which continued under the Frankish [[Merovingian]] and [[Carolingian]] monarchs who considered the entire kingdom to be their property, but who also controlled enormous royal domains as hunting reserves (''forests''). The biography of the Merovingian noble [[Saint Hubert]] (died 727/728) recounts how hunting could become an obsession. Carolingian [[Charlemagne]] loved to hunt and did so up until his death at age seventy-two.when he ate some bad pizza
With the breakup of the Carolingian Empire, local lords strove to maintain and monopolize the reserves and the taking of big game in forest reserves, and small game in [[warren (free)|warrens]]. They were most successful in England after the [[Norman Conquest]], and in [[Gascony]] from the 12th century. These were large sanctuaries of woodland—the [[royal forest]]—where populations of [[Game (food)|game animal]]s were kept and watched over by [[gamekeeper]]s. Here the peasantry could not hunt, [[poaching]] being subject to severe punishment: the injustice of such "emparked" preserves was a common cause of complaint in populist [[vernacular literature]]. The lower classes mostly had to content themselves with snaring birds and smaller game outside of forest reserves and warrens.
@@ -23,5 +23,5 @@
== How hunts were conducted ==
-English and French accounts agree on the general makeup of a hunt—they were well-planned so that everyone knew his role before going out. The hunt ''[[Persistence hunting#Parforce hunting|par force]]'' required each participant to have a specific role. If someone slipped in his role, not only could he easily get lost, but it put the rest of the group in danger by exposure. Many nobles hunted ''par force'', for a multitude of reasons, but above all because it was considered the purest and noblest form of hunting. The ritual of the hunt was meant to heighten danger within a controlled context. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, argued against hunters taking game in more efficient ways such as by bow and arrow or by setting traps, saying, "I speak of this against my will, for I should only teach how to take beasts nobly and gently" ("mes de ce parle je mal voulentiers, quar je ne devroye enseigner a prendre les bestes si n'est par noblesce et gentillesce"). Hunters like Gaston hunted not to kill the largest game, but rather for the process of the hunt, preferring ritual over efficiency.<ref name="Crane2012">{{cite book|author=Susan Crane|title=Animal Encounters: Contacts and Concepts in Medieval Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLHomhe_fMUC&pg=PA107|date=29 November 2012|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0630-2|page=107}}</ref> This mode of hunting was also important in the upbringing of noble youths. Boys at the age of 7 or 8 years began to learn how to handle a horse, travel with a company in forests, and utilize a weapon, practicing these skills in hunting groups. As a result, young men in the nobility and royalty were able to transfer acquired skills such as horsemanship, weapons management, wood-crafting, terrain assessment, and strategy formation from the hunting grounds to the battlefield in wars. Hunting also cultivated their education, and taught them the importance of ritual and noble acts.<ref name="Stean1993">{{Cite book|title=The Archaeology of Medieval English Monarchy|last=Steane|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=9780713472462|location=New York}}</ref>
+English and French accounts agree on the general makeup of a hunt—they were well-planned so that everyone knew his role before going out. The hunt ''[[Persistence hunting#Parforce hunting|par force]]'' required each participant to have a specific role. If someone slipped in his role, not only could he easily get lost, but it put the rest of the group in danger by exposure. Many nobles hunted ''par force'', for a multitude of reasons, but above all because it was considered the purest and noblest form of hunting. The ritual of the hunt was meant to heighten danger within a controlled context. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, argued against hunters taking game in more efficient ways such as by bow and arrow or by setting traps, saying, "I speak of this against my will, for I should only teach how to take beasts nobly and gently" ("mes de ce parle je mal voulentiers, quar je ne devroye enseigner a prendre les bestes si n'est par noblesce et gentillesce"). Hunters like Gaston only wanted some meat lol, but rather for the process of the hunt, preferring ritual over efficiency.<ref name="Crane2012">{{cite book|author=Susan Crane|title=Animal Encounters: Contacts and Concepts in Medieval Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLHomhe_fMUC&pg=PA107|date=29 November 2012|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0630-2|page=107}}</ref> This mode of hunting was also important in the upbringing of noble youths. Boys at the age of 7 or 8 years began to learn how to handle a horse, travel with a company in forests, and utilize a weapon, practicing these skills in hunting groups. As a result, young men in the nobility and royalty were able to transfer acquired skills such as horsemanship, weapons management, wood-crafting, terrain assessment, and strategy formation from the hunting grounds to the battlefield in wars. Hunting also cultivated their education, and taught them the importance of ritual and noble acts.<ref name="Stean1993">{{Cite book|title=The Archaeology of Medieval English Monarchy|last=Steane|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=9780713472462|location=New York}}</ref>
==Equipment==
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1 => 'hi rowan see this article lol its me haha hi cienna. [[Kings of Assyria|Assyrian kings]] hunted [[lion]]s from [[chariot]]s in a demonstration of their royal nature. In Roman law, property included the right to hunt, a concept which continued under the Frankish [[Merovingian]] and [[Carolingian]] monarchs who considered the entire kingdom to be their property, but who also controlled enormous royal domains as hunting reserves (''forests''). The biography of the Merovingian noble [[Saint Hubert]] (died 727/728) recounts how hunting could become an obsession. Carolingian [[Charlemagne]] loved to hunt and did so up until his death at age seventy-two.when he ate some bad pizza',
2 => 'English and French accounts agree on the general makeup of a hunt—they were well-planned so that everyone knew his role before going out. The hunt ''[[Persistence hunting#Parforce hunting|par force]]'' required each participant to have a specific role. If someone slipped in his role, not only could he easily get lost, but it put the rest of the group in danger by exposure. Many nobles hunted ''par force'', for a multitude of reasons, but above all because it was considered the purest and noblest form of hunting. The ritual of the hunt was meant to heighten danger within a controlled context. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, argued against hunters taking game in more efficient ways such as by bow and arrow or by setting traps, saying, "I speak of this against my will, for I should only teach how to take beasts nobly and gently" ("mes de ce parle je mal voulentiers, quar je ne devroye enseigner a prendre les bestes si n'est par noblesce et gentillesce"). Hunters like Gaston only wanted some meat lol, but rather for the process of the hunt, preferring ritual over efficiency.<ref name="Crane2012">{{cite book|author=Susan Crane|title=Animal Encounters: Contacts and Concepts in Medieval Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLHomhe_fMUC&pg=PA107|date=29 November 2012|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0630-2|page=107}}</ref> This mode of hunting was also important in the upbringing of noble youths. Boys at the age of 7 or 8 years began to learn how to handle a horse, travel with a company in forests, and utilize a weapon, practicing these skills in hunting groups. As a result, young men in the nobility and royalty were able to transfer acquired skills such as horsemanship, weapons management, wood-crafting, terrain assessment, and strategy formation from the hunting grounds to the battlefield in wars. Hunting also cultivated their education, and taught them the importance of ritual and noble acts.<ref name="Stean1993">{{Cite book|title=The Archaeology of Medieval English Monarchy|last=Steane|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=9780713472462|location=New York}}</ref>',
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1 => 'Hieratic formalized recreational hunting has taken place since [[Kings of Assyria|Assyrian kings]] hunted [[lion]]s from [[chariot]]s in a demonstration of their royal nature. In Roman law, property included the right to hunt, a concept which continued under the Frankish [[Merovingian]] and [[Carolingian]] monarchs who considered the entire kingdom to be their property, but who also controlled enormous royal domains as hunting reserves (''forests''). The biography of the Merovingian noble [[Saint Hubert]] (died 727/728) recounts how hunting could become an obsession. Carolingian [[Charlemagne]] loved to hunt and did so up until his death at age seventy-two.',
2 => 'English and French accounts agree on the general makeup of a hunt—they were well-planned so that everyone knew his role before going out. The hunt ''[[Persistence hunting#Parforce hunting|par force]]'' required each participant to have a specific role. If someone slipped in his role, not only could he easily get lost, but it put the rest of the group in danger by exposure. Many nobles hunted ''par force'', for a multitude of reasons, but above all because it was considered the purest and noblest form of hunting. The ritual of the hunt was meant to heighten danger within a controlled context. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, argued against hunters taking game in more efficient ways such as by bow and arrow or by setting traps, saying, "I speak of this against my will, for I should only teach how to take beasts nobly and gently" ("mes de ce parle je mal voulentiers, quar je ne devroye enseigner a prendre les bestes si n'est par noblesce et gentillesce"). Hunters like Gaston hunted not to kill the largest game, but rather for the process of the hunt, preferring ritual over efficiency.<ref name="Crane2012">{{cite book|author=Susan Crane|title=Animal Encounters: Contacts and Concepts in Medieval Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLHomhe_fMUC&pg=PA107|date=29 November 2012|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0630-2|page=107}}</ref> This mode of hunting was also important in the upbringing of noble youths. Boys at the age of 7 or 8 years began to learn how to handle a horse, travel with a company in forests, and utilize a weapon, practicing these skills in hunting groups. As a result, young men in the nobility and royalty were able to transfer acquired skills such as horsemanship, weapons management, wood-crafting, terrain assessment, and strategy formation from the hunting grounds to the battlefield in wars. Hunting also cultivated their education, and taught them the importance of ritual and noble acts.<ref name="Stean1993">{{Cite book|title=The Archaeology of Medieval English Monarchy|last=Steane|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=9780713472462|location=New York}}</ref>'
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9 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001628/http://apps.buckscc.gov.uk/eforms/medieval_life/pdfs/The_Medieval_Hunt.pdf',
10 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=LLHomhe_fMUC&pg=PA107',
11 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=kSOMTo4ZoM8C&pg=PA15',
12 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=4LsztHwoQx0C&pg=PA185',
13 => 'https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Medieval+hunting%22&acc=on&wc=on',
14 => 'https://arlima.net/no/371',
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16 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20180312183026/http://www.audubon.org/news/most-female-raptors-are-bigger-and-stronger-males-why',
17 => 'https://archive.org/details/medievalcrimesoc0000unse',
18 => 'https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/10940',
19 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=sEWeCQAAQBAJ&q=king+aistulf+death&pg=PA238',
20 => 'https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Medieval+hunting%22',
21 => 'https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Medieval+hunting%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1',
22 => 'https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Medieval+hunting%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks',
23 => 'https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Medieval+hunting%22+-wikipedia',
24 => 'https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Medieval+hunting%22'
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><big><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Aristocratic hunting practice</div></big><p><big>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1097763485">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mbox-text-span{margin-left:23px!important}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}</style></big></p><big><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Medieval_hunting" title="Special:EditPage/Medieval hunting">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Medieval+hunting%22">"Medieval hunting"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Medieval+hunting%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Medieval+hunting%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Medieval+hunting%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Medieval+hunting%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Medieval+hunting%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table></big><big><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayeux_hawking.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Bayeux_hawking.jpg/300px-Bayeux_hawking.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Bayeux_hawking.jpg/450px-Bayeux_hawking.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Bayeux_hawking.jpg/600px-Bayeux_hawking.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of England">King William I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harold_II_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold II of England">King Harold II</a> of <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry" title="Bayeux Tapestry">Bayeux Tapestry</a>.</figcaption></figure></big><big><p><b>Royal hunting</b>, also <b>royal art of hunting</b>, was a <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a> practice of the <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> throughout the known world in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> to <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a>. While humans hunted wild animals time immemorial, and all classes engaged in hunting as an important source of food and at times the principal source of nutrition. The necessity of hunting was transformed into a stylized pastime of the aristocracy. More than a pastime,l interaction, essential training for war, and a privilege and measurement of <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a>. In Europe in the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a> the practice was widespread.
</p></big><big><div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Terminology"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Terminology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#How_hunts_were_conducted"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">How hunts were conducted</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Equipment"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Equipment</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Horse"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Horse</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Hound"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Hound</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Hawks_and_Falcons"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Hawks and Falcons</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Quarry"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Quarry</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Hart"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Hart</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Boar"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Boar</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Wolf"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Wolf</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Other_quarry"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Other quarry</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Royal_Forests"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Royal Forests</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Poaching"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Poaching</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Art_and_symbolism"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Art and symbolism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Dangers_of_the_hunt"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Dangers of the hunt</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Literature"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Literature</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><big><p>hi rowan see this article lol its me haha hi cienna. <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Assyria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Assyria">Assyrian kings</a> hunted <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lions</a> from <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariots</a> in a demonstration of their royal nature. In Roman law, property included the right to hunt, a concept which continued under the Frankish <a href="/wiki/Merovingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Merovingian">Merovingian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carolingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian">Carolingian</a> monarchs who considered the entire kingdom to be their property, but who also controlled enormous royal domains as hunting reserves (<i>forests</i>). The biography of the Merovingian noble <a href="/wiki/Saint_Hubert" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Hubert">Saint Hubert</a> (died 727/728) recounts how hunting could become an obsession. Carolingian <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> loved to hunt and did so up until his death at age seventy-two.when he ate some bad pizza
</p><p>With the breakup of the Carolingian Empire, local lords strove to maintain and monopolize the reserves and the taking of big game in forest reserves, and small game in <a href="/wiki/Warren_(free)" class="mw-redirect" title="Warren (free)">warrens</a>. They were most successful in England after the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Gascony" title="Gascony">Gascony</a> from the 12th century. These were large sanctuaries of woodland—the <a href="/wiki/Royal_forest" title="Royal forest">royal forest</a>—where populations of <a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">game animals</a> were kept and watched over by <a href="/wiki/Gamekeeper" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamekeeper">gamekeepers</a>. Here the peasantry could not hunt, <a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">poaching</a> being subject to severe punishment: the injustice of such "emparked" preserves was a common cause of complaint in populist <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_literature" title="Vernacular literature">vernacular literature</a>. The lower classes mostly had to content themselves with snaring birds and smaller game outside of forest reserves and warrens.
</p><p>By the 16th century, areas of land reserved for breeding and hunting of game were of three kinds, according to their degree of enclosure and being subject to Forest Laws: <i>Forests</i>, large unenclosed areas of wilderness, <i><a href="/wiki/Chase_(land)" title="Chase (land)">Chases</a></i>, which normally belonged to nobles, rather than the crown, and <i><a href="/wiki/Medieval_deer_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval deer park">Parks</a></i>, which were enclosed, and not subject to Forest Laws.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p></big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Terminology">Terminology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><p><big>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style></big></p><big><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Livre_de_chasse" title="Livre de chasse">Livre de chasse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Saint_Albans" title="Book of Saint Albans">Book of Saint Albans</a></div></big><big><p>One of the striking things about medieval hunting is its devotion to terminology. All aspects of the hunt – each different animal to be hunted, in each year of its development, each of its body parts, each stage of the chase, each feature of the hounds' behaviour – had its separate term. Knowledge and (partly whimsical) extension of this terminology became a courtly fashion in the 14th century in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">England</a>.
</p><p>Medieval books of hunting laid huge stress on the importance of correct terminology, a tradition which was further extended to great lengths in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-Livre_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Livre-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Turbervile_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turbervile-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>The invention of the "fair terms" of hunting was attributed by <a href="/wiki/Malory" class="mw-redirect" title="Malory">Malory</a> and others to the <a href="/wiki/Arthurian" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthurian">Arthurian</a> knight <a href="/wiki/Tristan" title="Tristan">Sir Tristram</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Malory_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malory-4">[4]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> who is seen both as the model of the noble huntsman, and the originator of its ritual:
</p></big><big><blockquote><p>As he [Sir Tristram] grew in power and strength he laboured in hunting and hawking – never a gentleman that we ever heard of did more. And as the book says he devised good fanfares to blow for beasts of venery, and beasts of the chase and all kinds of vermin, and all the terms we still have in hawking and hunting. And therefore the book of venery, of hawking and hunting, is called Sir Tristram's. Therefore all gentlemen who bear old [coats of] arms ought to honour Sir Tristram for the goodly terms that gentlemen have and use, and shall until Doomsday, that through them all men of respect may distinguish a gentleman from a yeoman and a yeoman from a villein. (<i>Modernised</i>)
</p></blockquote></big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="How_hunts_were_conducted">How hunts were conducted</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: How hunts were conducted"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><big><p>English and French accounts agree on the general makeup of a hunt—they were well-planned so that everyone knew his role before going out. The hunt <i><a href="/wiki/Persistence_hunting#Parforce_hunting" title="Persistence hunting">par force</a></i> required each participant to have a specific role. If someone slipped in his role, not only could he easily get lost, but it put the rest of the group in danger by exposure. Many nobles hunted <i>par force</i>, for a multitude of reasons, but above all because it was considered the purest and noblest form of hunting. The ritual of the hunt was meant to heighten danger within a controlled context. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, argued against hunters taking game in more efficient ways such as by bow and arrow or by setting traps, saying, "I speak of this against my will, for I should only teach how to take beasts nobly and gently" ("mes de ce parle je mal voulentiers, quar je ne devroye enseigner a prendre les bestes si n'est par noblesce et gentillesce"). Hunters like Gaston only wanted some meat lol, but rather for the process of the hunt, preferring ritual over efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-Crane2012_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crane2012-5">[5]</a></sup> This mode of hunting was also important in the upbringing of noble youths. Boys at the age of 7 or 8 years began to learn how to handle a horse, travel with a company in forests, and utilize a weapon, practicing these skills in hunting groups. As a result, young men in the nobility and royalty were able to transfer acquired skills such as horsemanship, weapons management, wood-crafting, terrain assessment, and strategy formation from the hunting grounds to the battlefield in wars. Hunting also cultivated their education, and taught them the importance of ritual and noble acts.<sup id="cite_ref-Stean1993_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stean1993-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p></big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Equipment">Equipment</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><big><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_women_hunting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Medieval_women_hunting.jpg/250px-Medieval_women_hunting.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Medieval_women_hunting.jpg/375px-Medieval_women_hunting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Medieval_women_hunting.jpg/500px-Medieval_women_hunting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="838" /></a><figcaption>Medieval women hunting, illustration from a period manuscript.</figcaption></figure></big><big><p>The weapons used for hunting would mostly be the same as those used for war: <a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">bow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lance" title="Lance">lance</a> or <a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">spear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">knife</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sword" title="Sword">sword</a>. Bows were the most commonly used weapon. Although the crossbow was introduced around the time of the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> (1100), it was not generally used for hunting until the second half of the 15th century. Cudgels (clubs) were used for clubbing small game in particular by women who joined the hunt. "Boar spears" were also used. With the introduction of handheld <a href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">firearms</a> to hunting in the 16th century, traditional medieval hunting was transformed.
</p><p>The hunter would also need a <a href="/wiki/French_horn" title="French horn">horn</a> for communication with the other hunters. In addition to this the hunter depended on the assistance of certain domesticated animals. Three animals in particular were essential tools for the medieval hunter: the <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horse</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hound" title="Hound">hound</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hawk" title="Hawk">hawk</a> or <a href="/wiki/Falcon" title="Falcon">falcon</a>.
</p></big><big><h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Horse">Horse</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Horse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3></big><p><big>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"></big></p><big><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_horses" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval horses">Medieval horses</a></div></big><big><p>The horse was the most important animal of the great medieval household. The <a href="/wiki/Stable" title="Stable">stables</a>, also called the "marshalsea," would be separate from the rest of the household, and its head officer—the <a href="/wiki/Marshal" title="Marshal">marshal</a>—would be one of the household's senior officers. The marshal would have <a href="/wiki/Page_(occupation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Page (occupation)">pages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Groom_(horses)" class="mw-redirect" title="Groom (horses)">grooms</a> serving under him to care for the horses.
</p><p>A large household would have a wide array of horses for different purposes. There were cart- and <a href="/wiki/Packhorse" title="Packhorse">packhorses</a> employed in the day-to-day work of the household, <a href="/wiki/Palfrey" title="Palfrey">palfreys</a> used for human transport, and <a href="/wiki/Destrier" title="Destrier">destriers</a>, or warhorses, a powerful and expensive animal that in late medieval England could obtain prices of up to £80. Although it had the necessary qualities, the destrier would not be used for hunting, due to its value. Instead, a special breed called a <a href="/wiki/Courser_(horse)" title="Courser (horse)">courser</a> would be used. The courser, though inferior to the destrier and much smaller than today's horses, still had to be powerful enough to carry the rider at high speeds over large distances, agile, so it could maneuver difficult terrain without difficulty, and fearless enough not to be scared when encountering wild beasts.
</p></big><big><h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Hound">Hound</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hound"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3></big><big><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_hounds2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/77/Medieval_hounds2.png/300px-Medieval_hounds2.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/77/Medieval_hounds2.png/450px-Medieval_hounds2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/77/Medieval_hounds2.png 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Different breeds of medieval dogs</figcaption></figure></big><big><p>The dog was essential for several purposes. Its good sense of smell made it invaluable in finding the quarry. It would then assist in driving the hunted animal and, when the animal was finally at bay, the dog would either be the instrument of attack, or distract the quarry while the hunter moved in for the kill. Different breeds would be used for different tasks, and for different sorts of game, and while some of these breeds are recognizable to us today, the dogs were nevertheless somewhat different from modern breeds.
</p><p>Foremost among the hunting breeds was the <a href="/wiki/Greyhound" title="Greyhound">greyhound</a>. This breed was valued first and foremost for its speed, but also for its ability to attack and take down the game. Since the greyhound did not have much stamina, it was essential that it be not released before the quarry was in sight, toward the end of the hunt. Furthermore, greyhounds, though aggressive hunters, were valued for their docile temper at home, and often allowed inside as pets.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Alaunt" title="Alaunt">alaunt</a>, or alant, was a somewhat more robust animal than the greyhound, and therefore used against larger game, such as bears or boars. The alaunt was considered a reckless animal, and had been known to attack domestic animals, or even its owner. The <a href="/wiki/English_Mastiff" title="English Mastiff">mastiff</a> was an even more rugged breed, and though also used on the larger game, was mostly considered useful as a guard-dog.
</p><p>What all these dogs lacked was the ability to follow the scent of the quarry, and run it down. For this purpose the <a href="/wiki/Rache" title="Rache">running-hound</a> was used. The running-hound was somewhat similar to today's <a href="/wiki/Foxhound" title="Foxhound">foxhound</a>. This dog had, as the name indicates, excellent stamina, as well as a good nose. Another dog valued for its scenting skills was the <a href="/wiki/Limer" title="Limer">lymer</a>, a forerunner of today's <a href="/wiki/Bloodhound" title="Bloodhound">bloodhound</a>. Handled on a long leash, the lymer would be used to find the lay of the game before the hunt even started, and it was therefore important that, in addition to having a good nose, it remained quiet. Silence in the lymer was achieved through a combination of breeding and training. Other dogs used for hunting were the kennet (a small hunting dog, from ONF 'kenet', a diminutive of 'chien'), the <a href="/wiki/Terrier" title="Terrier">terrier</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Harrier_(dog)" class="mw-redirect" title="Harrier (dog)">harrier</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Spaniel" title="Spaniel">spaniel</a>.
</p><p>The hounds were kept in a <a href="/wiki/Kennel" title="Kennel">kennel</a>, inside or separate from the main domicile. Here the dogs would have oak beds to sleep on, and often also a second level where the dogs could go when the ground level became too hot or too cold. Outside the kennel there would be grass for the dogs to eat whenever they had digestive problems. To care for the dogs would be a hierarchy of servants such as pages, varlets, aides and veneurs; the page being the lowest, often a young boy. Pages would often sleep in the kennels with the dogs, to keep them from fighting and care for them if they got sick. Though this might seem harsh by modern standards, the warm dog house could often be much more comfortable than the sleeping quarters of other medieval servants.
</p></big><big><h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Hawks_and_Falcons">Hawks and Falcons</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hawks and Falcons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3></big><big><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Konradin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Konradin.jpg/250px-Konradin.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="361" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Konradin.jpg/375px-Konradin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Konradin.jpg/500px-Konradin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="993" data-file-height="1432" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of <a href="/wiki/Conradin" title="Conradin">Conradin</a> hawking, from the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Manesse" title="Codex Manesse">Codex Manesse</a> (Folio 7r).</figcaption></figure></big><big><p>Medieval terminology spoke of hawks of the tower and hawks of the fist, which roughly corresponds to falcons and hawks, respectively. The female hawk was preferred, since it was both larger than the male and easier to train. A male <a href="/wiki/Saker_falcon" title="Saker falcon">saker falcon</a> is approximately two thirds of the weight of a female;<sup id="cite_ref-Oggins2004_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oggins2004-7">[7]</a></sup> falconers call male peregrines <i>tiercels</i>, derived from the Latin word for "third".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> Hawks were captured all over Europe, but birds from <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> or <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> were considered of particularly good quality.
</p><p>Falconry, a common activity in the Middle Ages, was the training of falcons and hawks for personal usage, which included hunting game. Falcons and hawks have different physical makeups which affects their mode of hunting. Ducks, herons, and cranes were the common game hunted by falcons and hawks. The main differences between the two species of birds lies in their wings and tails. Falcons have long, narrow wings with a long tapered tail. As a result, they fly at incredibly high levels. To kill game, they elevate high up in the sky and then dive at their target. Their dives can go up to 200 mph. They utilized their talons on the downward dive to slash game. Usually their strikes kill the game with the first slash. Hawks, however, have shorter, rounder wings and longer tails. They glide along at lower altitudes. To kill their game, they glide toward their target and then use a burst of speed to close in. They utilize their talons to dig in and clutch onto their game until it is dead. As a result of their makeups, falcons and hawks were utilized by owners for different terrains. Falcons were used in open fields while hawks were used in marshlands and woodland.
</p><p>Training a hawk was a painstaking process. It was normal at first to "seel" the bird's eyelids—sew them shut—so that it would not be scared or distracted. The trainer would then carry the hawk on his arm for several days, to get it accustomed to human presence. The eyes would gradually be unseeled, and the training would begin. (Seeling is no longer practised in falconry and is illegal in most countries). The bird would be encouraged to fly from its perch to the falconer's hand over a gradually longer distance. Hunting game would be encouraged first by the use of meat, then a <a href="/wiki/Lure_(falconry)" title="Lure (falconry)">lure</a>, and eventually live prey. Such prey included <a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a>, sometime with their legs broken to facilitate the kill.
</p><p>Hawks would be housed in <a href="/wiki/Mews_(falconry)" title="Mews (falconry)">mews</a>, a special edifice found in most large medieval households, mostly a certain distance from the main domicile, so that the hawks would not be disturbed. The mews could be rather elaborate structures. There would be windows in the wall, and the ground would be kept clean so that the bird's regurgitations could be found and analyzed.
</p><p>Among the species used were:
</p></big><big><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawk" title="Hawk">Hawks</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_goshawk" title="Northern goshawk">Goshawk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_sparrowhawk" title="Eurasian sparrowhawk">Sparrowhawk</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falcon" title="Falcon">Falcons</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyr_falcon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyr falcon">Gyrfalcon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_hobby" title="Eurasian hobby">Hobby</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lanner_falcon" title="Lanner falcon">Lanner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Merlin_(bird)" title="Merlin (bird)">Merlin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peregrine_falcon" title="Peregrine falcon">Peregrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saker_falcon" title="Saker falcon">Saker</a></li></ul></li></ul></big><big><p>Of all the falcons, the gyrfalcon was considered the best one. They were thought of the highest quality when white ones were imported from Greenland. King Frederick II considered them the best "out of respect to their size, strength, audacity, and swiftness".<sup id="cite_ref-Stean1993_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stean1993-6">[6]</a></sup> Of the hawks, the goshawk was the most highly valued. They were more expensive and brought in more money for training. Goshawks from Scandinavia in particular were highly sought after.
</p></big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Quarry">Quarry</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Quarry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><big><p>Most of the larger, wild mammals could be hunted. Different animals were valued for different qualities; both in the hunt itself, and in the meat and the fur they produced.
</p></big><big><h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Hart">Hart</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Hart"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3></big><big><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deerhunting.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Deerhunting.png/220px-Deerhunting.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Deerhunting.png/330px-Deerhunting.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Deerhunting.png/440px-Deerhunting.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="366" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deer_hunting" title="Deer hunting">Deer hunting</a></figcaption></figure></big><big><p>The king of all the wild animals was the <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a>, and more precisely the <a href="/wiki/Hart_(deer)" title="Hart (deer)">hart</a>, which is an adult male of the <a href="/wiki/Red_deer" title="Red deer">red deer</a>. The hart was classified by the number of tines, or points, on its <a href="/wiki/Antler" title="Antler">antlers</a>. An animal should have at least ten tines to be considered worthy of hunting; this was referred to as a "hart of ten."<sup id="cite_ref-Turbervile_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turbervile-3">[3]</a></sup> Deer could be hunted in two different ways: <i>par force</i> ("by strength" and thereunder <i>par force de chiens</i> ("by force of dogs" )), and bow and stable.
</p><p>Hunting <i>par force</i> was considered the noblest form of hunting. In this process the game was run down and exhausted by the dogs before the kill was made. <i>Par force</i> hunting consisted of eight parts: the quest, the assembly, the relays, the moving or un-harboring, the chase, the baying, the unmaking and the <i>curée</i>.
</p></big><big><ul><li><b>Quest</b>: Before the hunt started, an expert huntsman, accompanied by a <a href="/wiki/Limer" title="Limer">lymer</a>, would seek out the quarry. By the help of tracks, broken branches and droppings he would try to locate the lay of the hart as accurately as possible; ideally he would see it.</li></ul></big><big><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MedHartHunt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/16/MedHartHunt.jpg/300px-MedHartHunt.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/16/MedHartHunt.jpg/450px-MedHartHunt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/16/MedHartHunt.jpg/600px-MedHartHunt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1659" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Picture from <i>Livre de la Chasse</i> showing relays of running hounds set on the path of the hart</figcaption></figure></big><big><ul><li><b>Assembly</b>: Then, early on the day of the hunt, the hunting party would meet, examine the huntsman's information and the deer's droppings, and agree on how best to conduct the hunt. This would be a social gathering also, with breakfast served.</li>
<li><b>Relays</b>: When the path of the hart had been predicted, relays of dogs were positioned along it. This way, it was assured that the dogs were not worn out before the hart.</li>
<li><b>Moving</b>: Also called the <i>fynding</i>. Here a lymer was used to track down the hart.</li>
<li><b>Chase</b>: This was the hunt proper; here it was essential to keep the hounds on the track of the selected quarry.</li>
<li><b>Baying</b>: When the hart could run no longer, it would turn and try to defend itself. It was said to be "at bay." The hounds should now be kept from attacking, and the most prominent man in the hunting party would make the kill, with a sword or spear.</li>
<li><b>Unmaking</b>: The deer was finally dissected in a careful, ritualistic manner.</li>
<li><b>Curée</b>: Lastly, the dogs had to be rewarded with pieces of the carcass, in a manner so that they would associate their effort with the reward.</li></ul></big><big><p>Hunting "by bow and stable" had less prestige, but could produce greater results. The quarry, often a whole herd, would be driven by hounds to a predetermined place. Here archers would be ready to kill the animals with bow and arrow. The subtlest form of hunting, and also the most productive relative to the forces used, was described by the German knight Guicennas. This was a party of two or three men on foot advancing slowly and quietly with partial concealment from horses (literal 'stalking horses' - because deer are relatively unalarmed by quadrupeds), so as to induce the deer to move without undue alarm into range of concealed archers. This required patience, a low profile attitude, and a deep appreciation of animal psychology.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>The hart was a highly respected animal, and had great <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythological</a> significance. It was often compared to <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a> for its suffering; a well-known story tells of how <a href="/wiki/Saint_Eustace" title="Saint Eustace">St. Eustace</a> was converted to Christianity by seeing a crucifix between the antlers of a stag while hunting. A similar story is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Hubertus" title="Hubertus">St. Hubert</a>. Other stories told of how the hart could become several hundred years old, and how a bone in the middle of its heart prevented it from dying of fear.
</p></big><big><h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Boar">Boar</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Boar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3></big><big><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boarhunting2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Boarhunting2.jpg/220px-Boarhunting2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Boarhunting2.jpg/330px-Boarhunting2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Boarhunting2.jpg/440px-Boarhunting2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="945" /></a><figcaption>Unmaking the boar, from the <a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_Duc_de_Berry" title="Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry">Très Riches Heures</a></figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Boar_hunting" title="Boar hunting">Boar hunting</a></div></big><big><p>Unlike the Romans for whom hunting <a href="/wiki/Boar" class="mw-redirect" title="Boar">boar</a> was considered a simple pastime, the hunting of boars in Medieval Europe was mostly done by nobles for the purpose of honing martial skill. It was traditional for the noble to dismount his horse once the boar was cornered and to finish it with a dagger. To increase the challenge, some hunters would commence their sport at the mating season, when the animals were more aggressive. Records show that wild boar were abundant in medieval Europe; this is correlated by documents from noble families and the clergy demanding tribute from commoners in the form of boar carcasses or body parts. In 1015 for example, the <a href="/wiki/Doge_(title)" title="Doge (title)">Doge</a> <a href="/wiki/Ottone_Orseolo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottone Orseolo">Ottone Orseolo</a> demanded for himself and his successors the head and feet of every boar killed in his area of influence.<sup id="cite_ref-Nera_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nera-9">[9]</a></sup> The boar was a highly dangerous animal to hunt; it would fight ferociously when under attack, and could easily kill a dog, a horse, or a man. It was hunted <i>par force</i>, and when at bay, a hound like a mastiff could perhaps be foolhardy enough to attack it, but ideally it should be killed by a rider with a <a href="/wiki/Boar_spear" title="Boar spear">spear</a>. The boar was sometimes considered a malicious animal, and even had <a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">satanic</a> associations. It was also respected for its tenacity and appears frequently as a heraldic charge.
</p></big><big><h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Wolf">Wolf</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Wolf"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3></big><p><big>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"></big></p><big><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wolf_hunting" title="Wolf hunting">Wolf hunting</a></div></big><big><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medium_loup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/59/Medium_loup.jpg/200px-Medium_loup.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/59/Medium_loup.jpg/300px-Medium_loup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/59/Medium_loup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="345" data-file-height="172" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wolf_hunting" title="Wolf hunting">Wolf hunt</a> depicted in a 14th-century bestiary</figcaption></figure></big><big><p>Wolves were mainly hunted for their skins, to protect <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a>, and in some rare cases to protect humans. Pelts were the only considered practical use for wolves, and were usually made into cloaks or mittens, though not without hesitation, due to the wolf's foul odour. There were generally no restrictions or penalties in the civilian hunting of wolves, except in royal game reserves, under the reasoning that the temptation for an intruding commoner to shoot a deer there was too great.<sup id="cite_ref-Bloodsport_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloodsport-10">[10]</a></sup> In 9th-century France, <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> founded an elite corps of crown-funded officials called "<a href="/wiki/Luparii" class="mw-redirect" title="Luparii">Luparii</a>", whose purpose was to control wolf populations in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> during the Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-Loups_en_France_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loups_en_France-11">[11]</a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> of 950, <a href="/wiki/King_Athelstan" class="mw-redirect" title="King Athelstan">King Athelstan</a> imposed an annual tribute of 300 wolf skins on <a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a> king <a href="/wiki/Hywel_Dda" title="Hywel Dda">Hywel Dda</a>, an imposition which was maintained until the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman conquest of England</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FB_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FB-12">[12]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Norman_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman dynasty">Norman</a> kings (reigning from 1066 to 1152 AD) employed servants as wolf hunters and many<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (May 2011)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> held lands granted on condition they fulfilled this duty. King <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a>, who reigned from 1272 to 1307, ordered the total extermination of all wolves in the counties of <a href="/wiki/Gloucestershire" title="Gloucestershire">Gloucestershire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herefordshire" title="Herefordshire">Herefordshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worcestershire" title="Worcestershire">Worcestershire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Staffordshire" title="Staffordshire">Staffordshire</a>, where wolves were more common than in the southern areas of England.<sup id="cite_ref-NK_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NK-13">[13]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_I_of_Scotland" title="James I of Scotland">James I of Scotland</a> passed a law in 1427 requiring 3 wolf hunts a year between 25 April and 1 August, coinciding with the wolf's cubbing season.<sup id="cite_ref-FB_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FB-12">[12]</a></sup> The wolf became extinct in England during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> (1485–1509).<sup id="cite_ref-NK_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NK-13">[13]</a></sup> Before its extinction in the British Isles, the wolf was considered by the English nobility as one of the five so called "Royal Beasts of the Chase".<sup id="cite_ref-BOAR_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BOAR-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p></big><big><h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_quarry">Other quarry</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other quarry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3></big><big><p>Hunting of bears, especially on the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, was popular because of the animal's stamina and strength, and the danger of the hunt. Hunting <a href="/wiki/Hare" title="Hare">hares</a> using greyhounds or hounds was a popular pastime.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Some animals were considered inedible, but still hunted for the sport, such as <a href="/wiki/Fox" title="Fox">foxes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otter" title="Otter">otters</a> or <a href="/wiki/Badger" title="Badger">badgers</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p></big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Royal_Forests">Royal Forests</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Royal Forests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><big><p>The royal forest was an area of land designated to the king for hunting and forestry; it included woodland, heathland, and agricultural land. As of the 12th century nearly a third of England's territory was assigned as royal forest. Only the king and other permitted members of the nobility were allowed to hunt game in the assigned area. To maintain this restriction, forest law was introduced to enforce the boundaries. Special officials known as <a href="/wiki/Forester#Medieval_foresters" title="Forester">foresters</a> were in charge of overseeing <a href="/wiki/Royal_forest#Forest_law" title="Royal forest">forest law</a>. The foresters were among the most hated of royal officials as they were often corrupt, having a reputation for making illegal side profits on royal forest property by farming, extracting natural resources, and poaching game. They exacted many punishments for poaching game, farming, and other illegal activities on the royal forest. Heavy fines and imprisonment were the common discipline. While foresters were in charge of the upkeep of forest law, sometimes the king would employ the local sheriff to get involved.<sup id="cite_ref-CarlinCrouch2013_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CarlinCrouch2013-15">[15]</a></sup> Hunting, however, was not the only function for the royal forest. Kings would also use these territories for cattle upbringing, farming, and extracting the land's resources. They also notably served as reserves for all kinds of wildlife. King Henry I of England was known for having a fascination with pet animals. His parks included wild animals like lions and leopards.<sup id="cite_ref-Stean1993_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stean1993-6">[6]</a></sup> Forest laws in regards to hunting created class distinctions. King Richard II of England issued the first game law in 1390. It constituted a property requirement of certain value to have hunting dogs or other hunting equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p></big><big><h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Poaching">Poaching</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Poaching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3></big><big><p>Poaching was a common offense in the Middle Ages. It was an act that was engaged by all of society and was widely tolerated by it. All kinds of poachers engaged in this illegal act, but sometimes it was a highly organized activity. Poachers worked together in rings to accomplish their goals. They would poach game off royal forest property and sell it to commoners for a profit. Sometimes, these rings worked for other lords and even monks to supply them. The lords and monks in turn would either own consumption or sell it in the common marketplace for a profit. Game would not be the only item poached from royal forests. Many sought after its resources with wood in particular a highly sought commodity. Often the arresting of poachers did not end cleanly. Poachers would resist arrest, sometimes resorting to assaulting and shooting foresters to escape. There is a recorded instance of St Thomas Becket performing a miracle by healing a forester shot in the throat by poachers. Sometimes the nobility would engage in poaching by either taking more game than permitted or by hunting in a restricted area.<sup id="cite_ref-CarlinCrouch2013_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CarlinCrouch2013-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p></big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Art_and_symbolism">Art and symbolism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Art and symbolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><p><big>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485"></big></p><big><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Medieval_hunting" title="Special:EditPage/Medieval hunting">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table></big><p><big>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style></big></p><big><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:368px;max-width:368px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_hound.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_hound.jpg/180px-Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_hound.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_hound.jpg/270px-Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_hound.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_hound.jpg/360px-Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_hound.jpg 2x" data-file-width="723" data-file-height="742" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_stag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_stag.jpg/180px-Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_stag.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_stag.jpg/270px-Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_stag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_stag.jpg/360px-Ludlow_hunting_tile_-_stag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="879" data-file-height="911" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Medieval floor tiles from <a href="/wiki/Ludlow" title="Ludlow">Ludlow</a>, England, part of a set showing a hunting hound and stag</div></div></div></div></big><big><p>Like everything else in the Middle Ages, hunting was full of symbolism. Religious symbolism was common; the hart or the <a href="/wiki/Unicorn" title="Unicorn">unicorn</a> was often associated with Christ, but the hunt itself could equally be seen as the Christian's quest for truth and <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">salvation</a>. In the more secular literature, <a href="/wiki/Romance_(heroic_literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance (heroic literature)">romances</a> for instance, the hunter pursuing his quarry was often used as a symbol of the knight's struggle for his lady's favor.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">Hagiography</a>, notably the lives of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Eustace" title="Saint Eustace">Saint Eustace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Hubert" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Hubert">Saint Hubert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Hospitaller" title="Julian the Hospitaller">Saint Julian</a> provided many opportunities for medieval artists to express hunting in <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscripts" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminated manuscripts">illuminated manuscripts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">stained glass</a>. The "minor arts" such as wooden chests, tapestries and wall paintings also depict such scenes. In the 14th and 15th centuries the most detailed <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.larsdatter.com/hunting.htm">hunting images</a> are found in illuminated manuscripts.
</p></big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Dangers_of_the_hunt">Dangers of the hunt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Dangers of the hunt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><big><p>Hunting could be extremely dangerous and serious injuries and deaths among the hunters were not uncommon. Even kings and emperors were not immune to hunting accidents. Those killed while hunting include:
</p></big><big><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine emperor">Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Basil_I" title="Basil I">Basil I</a> - died after an accident in which his belt was caught in the antlers of a deer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine emperor">Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/John_II_Komnenos" title="John II Komnenos">John II Komnenos</a> - killed after accidentally pricking himself with poison arrows</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard,_son_of_William_the_Conqueror" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard, son of William the Conqueror">Richard of Normandy</a> - second son of <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a>, mauled by a stag in the <a href="/wiki/New_Forest" title="New Forest">New Forest</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_II_of_England" title="William II of England">King William II</a> - Richard's brother, killed with an arrow in the New Forest three decades later. Widely suspected to be a murder, but is unproven.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fulk_of_Jerusalem" class="mw-redirect" title="Fulk of Jerusalem">King Fulk of Jerusalem</a> - crushed under his horse after a fall while hunting</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Valdemar_the_Young" title="Valdemar the Young">Valdemar the Young</a> - co-ruler of Denmark, accidentally shot on a hunt</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dagobert_II" title="Dagobert II">King Dagobert II</a> - King of Austrasia, killed in a hunting 'accident', perhaps on the orders of the Mayor of the Palace, Pepin of Herstal.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aistulf" title="Aistulf">King Aistulf</a> - King of the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a>, killed in a hunting accident near Pavia. Might have been murdered, although this is uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup></li></ul></big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Literature">Literature</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><big><p>Hunting was a subject considered worthy of the attention of the greatest of men, and several prominent peers, kings and emperors wrote books on the topic. Among the best known sources for medieval hunting we have today, by nobles or others, are:
</p></big><big><ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_arte_venandi_cum_avibus" title="De arte venandi cum avibus">De arte venandi cum avibus</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a></li>
<li><i>Les livres du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio</i> (1354–1376), attributed to a "Henri de Ferrières" about whom nothing is known.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup></li>
<li><i>Le Roman des Deduis</i> (before 1377), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gace_de_la_Buigne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gace de la Buigne (page does not exist)">Gace de la Buigne</a>.</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaston_III,_Count_of_Foix#Livre_de_chasse_(Book_of_the_Hunt)" title="Gaston III, Count of Foix">Livre de Chasse</a></i> (1387–1389), <a href="/wiki/Gaston_III,_Count_of_Foix" title="Gaston III, Count of Foix">Gaston III (Phėbus) Phoebus</a>, Count of Foix. Various copies with excellent illustrations. Also known as <i>Book of The Hunt</i>.
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Master_of_Game" title="The Master of Game">The Master of Game</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Edward,_Duke_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward, Duke of York">Edward, Duke of York</a> (partial English translation of Phoebus & Twiti)<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/masterofgameoldexx00edwa">[1]</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i>La chasse royale</i>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_IX_of_France" title="Charles IX of France">Charles IX of France</a></li>
<li><i>Libro de la montería</i>, <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_XI_of_Castile" title="Alfonso XI of Castile">Alfonso XI of Castile</a></li></ul></big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><big><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bear_hunting" title="Bear hunting">Bear hunting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boar_hunting" title="Boar hunting">Boar hunting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fox_hunting" title="Fox hunting">Fox hunting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Falconer_of_France" title="Grand Falconer of France">Grand Falconer of France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Huntsman_of_France" title="Grand Huntsman of France">Grand Huntsman of France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Huntsman_of_Brabant" title="Grand Huntsman of Brabant">Grand Huntsman of Brabant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_dog" title="Hunting dog">Hunting dog</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Protokynegos" title="Protokynegos">Protokynegos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prothierakarios" class="mw-redirect" title="Prothierakarios">Prothierakarios</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Gautier_de_Vinfrais" title="Charles Gautier de Vinfrais">Charles Gautier de Vinfrais</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_hunting" title="Wolf hunting">Wolf hunting</a></li></ul></big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><p><big>
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<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/OED" class="mw-redirect" title="OED">OED</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2017)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Livre-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Livre_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFdu_Fouilloux1561" class="citation book cs1">du Fouilloux, Jaques (1561). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~wulfric/rentexte/fouillou"><i>La Venerie de Jaques du Fouilloux</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Venerie+de+Jaques+du+Fouilloux&rft.date=1561&rft.aulast=du+Fouilloux&rft.aufirst=Jaques&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chass.utoronto.ca%2F~wulfric%2Frentexte%2Ffouillou&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Turbervile-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Turbervile_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Turbervile_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTurbervile1575" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Turbervile" class="mw-redirect" title="George Turbervile">Turbervile, George</a> (1575). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/turbervilesbook00turbgoog"><i>The Noble Art of Venerie or Huntyng (A translation of du Fouilloux)</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Noble+Art+of+Venerie+or+Huntyng+%28A+translation+of+du+Fouilloux%29&rft.date=1575&rft.aulast=Turbervile&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fturbervilesbook00turbgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Malory-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Malory_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMalory1485" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malory" title="Thomas Malory">Malory, Sir Thomas</a> (1485). <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Vinaver" title="Eugène Vinaver">Vinaver, Eugène</a> (ed.). <i>Works</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Works&rft.date=1485&rft.aulast=Malory&rft.aufirst=Sir+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Crane2012-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crane2012_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSusan_Crane2012" class="citation book cs1">Susan Crane (29 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LLHomhe_fMUC&pg=PA107"><i>Animal Encounters: Contacts and Concepts in Medieval Britain</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0630-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0630-2"><bdi>978-0-8122-0630-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animal+Encounters%3A+Contacts+and+Concepts+in+Medieval+Britain&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2012-11-29&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-0630-2&rft.au=Susan+Crane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLLHomhe_fMUC%26pg%3DPA107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Stean1993-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stean1993_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stean1993_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stean1993_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSteane1993" class="citation book cs1">Steane, John (1993). <i>The Archaeology of Medieval English Monarchy</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780713472462" title="Special:BookSources/9780713472462"><bdi>9780713472462</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Medieval+English+Monarchy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780713472462&rft.aulast=Steane&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Oggins2004-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oggins2004_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRobin_S._Oggins2004" class="citation book cs1">Robin S. Oggins (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kSOMTo4ZoM8C&pg=PA15"><i>The Kings and Their Hawks: Falconry in Medieval England</i></a>. Yale University Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10058-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10058-7"><bdi>978-0-300-10058-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kings+and+Their+Hawks%3A+Falconry+in+Medieval+England&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10058-7&rft.au=Robin+S.+Oggins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkSOMTo4ZoM8C%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180312183026/http://www.audubon.org/news/most-female-raptors-are-bigger-and-stronger-males-why">"Most Female Raptors Are Bigger and Stronger Than Males, but Why?"</a>. <i>Audubon</i>. National Audubon Society. 12 March 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.audubon.org/news/most-female-raptors-are-bigger-and-stronger-males-why">the original</a> on 12 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Audubon&rft.atitle=Most+Female+Raptors+Are+Bigger+and+Stronger+Than+Males%2C+but+Why%3F&rft.date=2018-03-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.audubon.org%2Fnews%2Fmost-female-raptors-are-bigger-and-stronger-males-why&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Nera-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nera_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFScheggi,_Massimo1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Scheggi, Massimo (1999). <i>La Bestia Nera: Caccia al Cinghiale fra Mito, Storia e Attualità</i> (in Italian). p. 201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8825379048" title="Special:BookSources/8825379048"><bdi>8825379048</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Bestia+Nera%3A+Caccia+al+Cinghiale+fra+Mito%2C+Storia+e+Attualit%C3%A0&rft.pages=201&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=8825379048&rft.au=Scheggi%2C+Massimo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Bloodsport-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bloodsport_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin,_Emma2007" class="citation book cs1">Griffin, Emma (2007). <i>Blood Sport: Hunting in Britain Since 1066</i>. p. 296. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300116281" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300116281"><bdi>978-0300116281</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+Sport%3A+Hunting+in+Britain+Since+1066&rft.pages=296&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0300116281&rft.au=Griffin%2C+Emma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Loups_en_France-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Loups_en_France_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.loup.org/spip/L-histoire-du-loup-en-France,400.html">"L'histoire du loup en France: Chronologie d'une destruction"</a>. <i>Ivy Stanmore</i>. Loup.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-02-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ivy+Stanmore&rft.atitle=L%27histoire+du+loup+en+France%3A+Chronologie+d%27une+destruction&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.loup.org%2Fspip%2FL-histoire-du-loup-en-France%2C400.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FB-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FB_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FB_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBuczacki,_Stefan2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stefan_Buczacki" title="Stefan Buczacki">Buczacki, Stefan</a> (2005). <i>Fauna Britanica</i>. p. 528. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0600613925" title="Special:BookSources/0600613925"><bdi>0600613925</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fauna+Britanica&rft.pages=528&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0600613925&rft.au=Buczacki%2C+Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-NK-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NK_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NK_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928014325/http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/disappearance_of_wolves.html">"The Disappearance of Wolves in the British Isles"</a>. <i>Ivy Stanmore</i>. Wolf Song of Alaska. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/disappearance_of_wolves.html">the original</a> on 2007-09-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-09-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ivy+Stanmore&rft.atitle=The+Disappearance+of+Wolves+in+the+British+Isles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wolfsongalaska.org%2Fdisappearance_of_wolves.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-BOAR-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BOAR_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCarbanau,_Laurent2001" class="citation book cs1">Carbanau, Laurent (2001). <i>Wild Boar in Europe</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3829055285" title="Special:BookSources/3829055285"><bdi>3829055285</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wild+Boar+in+Europe&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=3829055285&rft.au=Carbanau%2C+Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-CarlinCrouch2013-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CarlinCrouch2013_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CarlinCrouch2013_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMartha_CarlinDavid_Crouch2013" class="citation book cs1">Martha Carlin; David Crouch, eds. (22 February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4LsztHwoQx0C&pg=PA185">"Lordship and Administration"</a>. <i>Lost Letters of Medieval Life: English Society, 1200-1250</i>. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. –186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4459-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4459-5"><bdi>978-0-8122-4459-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lordship+and+Administration&rft.btitle=Lost+Letters+of+Medieval+Life%3A+English+Society%2C+1200-1250&rft.pages=-186&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2013-02-22&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4459-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4LsztHwoQx0C%26pg%3DPA185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHanawaltWallace1998" class="citation book cs1">Hanawalt, Barbara A.; Wallace, David (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievalcrimesoc0000unse"><i>Medieval Crime and Social Control</i></a></span>. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816631681" title="Special:BookSources/9780816631681"><bdi>9780816631681</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Crime+and+Social+Control&rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+MN&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780816631681&rft.aulast=Hanawalt&rft.aufirst=Barbara+A.&rft.au=Wallace%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmedievalcrimesoc0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLawler2015" class="citation book cs1">Lawler, Jennifer (2015-05-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sEWeCQAAQBAJ&q=king+aistulf+death&pg=PA238"><i>Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire</i></a>. McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-0929-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-0929-4"><bdi>978-1-4766-0929-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Byzantine+Empire&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2015-05-20&rft.isbn=978-1-4766-0929-4&rft.aulast=Lawler&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsEWeCQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dking%2Baistulf%2Bdeath%26pg%3DPA238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arlima.net/no/371">"Arlima - Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Arlima+-+Archives+de+litt%C3%A9rature+du+Moyen+%C3%82ge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farlima.net%2Fno%2F371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+hunting" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="//archive.org/details/lelivreduroymod00unkngoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:lelivreduroymod00unkngoog">Le livre du roy Modus et de la royne Racio</a>, edited by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Elz%C3%A9ar_Blaze&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elzéar Blaze (page does not exist)">Elzéar Blaze</a> (Paris, 1839) on <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><big><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001628/http://apps.buckscc.gov.uk/eforms/medieval_life/pdfs/The_Medieval_Hunt.pdf">The Medieval Hunt</a> Buckinghamshire City Council.</li>
<li>Richard Almond (2003). <i>Medieval Hunting</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-2162-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-2162-5">0-7509-2162-5</a></li>
<li>Gerard Brault (1985). "Hunting and Fowling, Western European". <i>Dictionary of the Middle Ages</i> vol.6, pp. 356–363. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-18168-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-18168-1">0-684-18168-1</a></li>
<li>John Cummins (1988, new paperback edition 2001). <i>The Hound and the Hawk: The Art of Medieval Hunting</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84212-097-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-84212-097-2">1-84212-097-2</a></li>
<li>David Dalby, <i>Lexicon of the Mediaeval German Hunt: A Lexicon of Middle High German Terms (1050–1500), Associated with the Chase, Hunting with Bows, Falconry, Trapping and Fowling</i>, Walter de Gruyter, 1965, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110818604" title="Special:BookSources/9783110818604">9783110818604</a>.</li>
<li>Emma Griffin (2009). <i>Blood Sport: Hunting in Britain since 1066</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-11628-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-11628-4">0-300-11628-4</a></li>
<li>C. M. Woolgar. <i>The Great Household in Late Medieval England</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07687-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-07687-8">0-300-07687-8</a></li></ul></big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_hunting&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><big><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arlima.net/ad/chasse.html">Bibliography of medieval hunting treatises</a> at Arlima - Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.larsdatter.com/hunting.htm">Hunt Scenes in Medieval and Renaissance Works of Art</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/10940"><i>Manners, Custom and Dress During the Middle Ages and During the Renaissance Period</i></a>, Paul Lacroix. At gutenberg.org</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050710081532/http://users.cybercity.dk/~ccc12787/bibacci/hist.html">Bibliotheca Accipitraria: History of falconry:</a> a bibliography (35 items)</li></ul></big><big><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hunting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Portal</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Middle_Ages" title="Category:Middle Ages">Category</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Middle_Ages" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Middle Ages">WikiProject</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></big><big></big><p><big></big><big>Big text</big>
</p></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1713293667' |
